GoalOpinion/AssertionPostRead the criticism in this module [below], entitled, “Astronomy, Alchemy, and Archetypes” and share your ideas about the criticism in a discussion post (you MUST quote the passage). The post is meant to be a response specifically to THIS CRITICISM. So write at least three full paragraphs [or more if you wish] on this criticism [in relation to the play] for the full 20 points.GradingClick on the rubric to see how the discussion will be graded.Astronomy, Alchemy, and Archetypes: An Integrated View of Shakespeare’sA Midsummer Night’s Dreamby Katherine Bartol PerraultChapter 3: The Mythology Of The Play: Archetypes RevealedMyth: The Fundamental Essence of the ArchetypeC. Kerenyi, in his “Prolegomena” to Essays on a Science of Mythology: The Myth of the Divine Child and The Mysteries of Eleusis asks the question “What is mythology?” (Jung & Kerenyi, 2). The word myth means, “to put together,” Kerenyi states, and is “the movement of [. . .] tales already well known but not unamenable to further reshaping [. . .] something solid, and yet mobile, substantial and yet not static, capable of transformation” (2). The images of myth are not merely linguistic, but primarily pictorial, stemming from man’s unconscious. Both Jung and Kerenyi assert that myths are primordial images of primitive human phenomena, revealing the nature of man’s soul. They arise through the poetry of mythology, and do not only possess meaning but also assign meaning through the function of an archetype, which is a “‘representation of a motif’ [that] ‘constellates’ a dream or mythical symbol” (Doty 151). Most myths contain recurring archetypes of gods, supernatural beings who represent projections of psychic phenomena, and primordial time—eternal time in which the archetypal image transcends time as well as place.We have seen through the astronomy of Midsummer and its numeric configurations how the play is intrinsically unified through a complex symbol system whose myths manifest archetypes. Jung states that “All the mythologized processes of nature, such as summer and winter, the phases of the moon, the rainy seasons, and so forth, are in no sense allegories of these objective occurrences; rather they are symbolic expressions of the inner, unconscious drama of the psyche” (Archetypes 6). We have seen how the natural processes of astronomy, the progression of time, and the seasons are an elemental part of the structure of Midsummer. As expressions of the unconscious, these natural archetypes are numinous, and mystical, and should be regarded symbolically, inherent with multiple meanings, rather than literally.Archetypes revealed in the artist’s poetry give us insight into the psychology of the human condition. While archetypes appear in a given individual or community, in a given culture, at a given moment in time, they also transcend that particular time or culture by virtue of their trans-historical resonance as symbol within the psyche. The significance in analyzing the mythic images or archetypes in poetic literature is expressed by James P. Driscoll in Identity in Shakespearean Drama, as he comments on Jung’s conceptions about how archetypes motivate the artist/poet to shape characters. He states:The essential artist, [Jung] insists, is an unwitting mouthpiece for the psychic secrets of his time, and often remains as unconscious as a sleepwalker. Since he lives closer to both the archetypal realm and the zeitgeist than do ordinary men who, circumscribed by their social functions, are confined to life’s surface, the artist can directly apprehend the true nature of the cultural and psychic forces he encounters and translate his vision into art form. Thus the poetical character makes archetypal visions accessible to all men. [. . .] Because the artist can speak the language of dreams directly through image and symbol, he enjoys a peculiar power to create myths and identities that possess an archetypal import and fascination that philosophical reasoning cannot equal.(10, 11)Archetypes, often described as universals, bridge time and culture as they continually resurface in the collective unconscious, which, according to Jung,has contents and modes of behavior that are more or less the same everywhere and in all individuals. It is, in other words, identical in all men, and thus constitutes a common psychic substrate of a supra-personal nature which is present in every one of us. (Archetypes 4)Through the collective unconscious, “the repository of man’s experience” (Analytical Psychology, 93), the archetypes constellate similar meanings for everyone. Harold Bloom asserts that Shakespeare’s “universal canon” transcends time and cultures in just this way, showing Elizabethans as well as postmodernists what it means to be human (Human, Bloom 17). Sitansu Maitra contends that through the analysis of archetypes as symbol in poetry, Jung has provided a way for us to understand Shakespeare’s creative genius beyond “the [Freudian] sterility of personal complexes of the creative artist into the wide open of the collective unconscious where the human race meets” (64, 73).From Jung’s perspective, contrary to general post-modern thought, the artist is connected by her/his very nature to the psychic pulse of humanity, and functions as mythmaker and storyteller within a culture through her/his work. Through the collective unconscious, the artist is able to access common ideas and icons—what Shakespeare might refer to as the “airy nothing[s]” (V.i.16)of imagination, and gives them a “local habitation and a name” (V.i.17) in the form of the artwork.For Jung, the visionary poet is amythological ‘fundamentalist’ who, by immersion in the self, dives down to his own foundations, founds his world. He builds it up for himself on a foundation where everything is an out-flowing, a sprouting and springing up—’original’ in the fullest sense of the word [“origin” comes from the Latin, origi, “to rise”], and consequently divine. (Kerenyi, Mythology 9)In Midsummer, Shakespeare’s blending of pagan mythos and Christian rites formulates an original tale or myth that is circumscribed in the marriage ritual. According to Kerenyi, “Ceremonial is the translation of a mythological value into an act” (10). The mythological drama, as such, constitutes a symbolic journey from psychic origins to wholeness via ritual, mediated through the symbolic functioning of the archetypes.When mythic archetypes appear in a ritual application (as in the rites of passage in Midsummer), they function to compensate for “deficient and distorted conscious attitudes in the traditions and dogmas that compose a ‘cultural canon,'[heralding] momentous shifts in [the] culture’s consciousness” (Lewisberg 11). The work of the archetypes in this way results in some form of cultural transformation. For example, Keith Sagar asserts in “A Midsummer Night’s Dream: A Marriage of Heaven and Hell,” that Midsummer constituted Shakespeare’s attack on the Puritans’ anathema to the “wholeness of nature” (42), which signaled the dis-integration of the Neo-Platonic, Ptolemaic worldview. As such, Sagar contends that Shakespeare appropriates archetypes that perform sacred functions, restoring harmony, not necessarily according to religious law, but according to natural law.The compensatory function of the Midsummer’s mythic archetypes in this instance results in the alchemical reconciliation of opposites (the coniunctio), in which what is considered base in nature and human relations is transformed through the restoration of nature to an equitable balance. This occurs not in spite of the oppositions present in the play, but because of them. In accord with McAlindon’s ideas concerning “the discordant concord of a natural order whose governing forces are Love and Strife, Mars and Venus” (10), Jung states, “Submission to the fundamental contrariety of human nature amounts to an acceptance of the fact that the psyche is at cross purposes with itself” (Transference 143). The paradox of discordant concord is also seen at work in the archetypal symbolism of alchemy. The opus of esoteric alchemy is not only derived from nature, but is also a work of nature. Through symbol, the opus magnum embodies the essence of reconnecting one’s psyche with the world, and ultimately, with the birth of the self, “the container and organizer of all opposites” (Jung, Transference 157).Jung contends that the alchemical image of the coniunctio is archetypal, an “a priori image that occupies a prominent place in the history of man’s mental development,” and has its sources in both pagan and Christian alchemy (Transference 5).An examination of the mythological archetypes of Midsummer will reveal Shakespeare’s poetic use of medieval alchemy. This examination will also unveil alchemy’s bridge to the present day through Jung’s appropriation of alchemical archetypes in the analysis of the personality, in which “we are confronted withpre-conscious processes which, in the form of more or less well-formed fantasies, gradually pass over into the conscious mind, or become conscious as dreams, or, lastly, are made conscious through the method of active imagination” (Jung & Kerenyi, Mythology 78).The Archetypal Mythology of the PlayThe setting of Midsummer is in itself mythic: in legendary Athens, Greece. Yet, because the play’s archetypes display typologically cultural themes, theoretically Athens itself could be any city, and the wood could be any wood. Through a mythological reading of Midsummer, we establish a formal unity of time, place, and action; time which could be ‘dream time’—or no time, a place which could be anyplace, and action—which functions transformatively, as primordial time, in relationship to the play’s archetypes.Some of the primary archetypes in Midsummer are revealed in the elemental dualisms of the play, seen in the following pairings:MasculineFeminineTheseusHippolytaOberonTitaniaDayNightSunMoonConsciousUnconsciousAnimusAnimaReasonImaginationDryMoistHeavenEarthAboveBelowLightDarknessCityWoodsOrderChaos/madnessAccording to Peter Dronke, because Shakespeare, like the medieval poets, saw the world as an integrated whole, he could metaphorically make such “hidden comparisons (collationes occultae), [and] like the prophet, realise something that was ‘both within and without'”(x). If we view the Athenian court as a symbol of reason and consciousness, and the fairy wood as a representative of imagination and the unconscious, we see a paradigm of the archetypal structure of the psyche begin to appear: the animus (the masculine principle: Theseus-Oberon) and anima (the feminine principle: Hippolyta-Titania) in opposition; and the unconscious (the chaos of the wood/the fairies) rupturing through to consciousness (the Athenian court:the royals), signaling the dis-integration of the personality (the world of the play).Sagar contends that Shakespeare’s fairies were not to be construed literally, but figuratively, as portents of inner psychic darkness (37). Yet, in Shakespeare’s day, fairy lore was very popular, and many came to see Midsummer just for the fairies (Losey 197). In 17th and 18th Century reconstructions of the play, it was even called The Fairies (Rolfe 14). The Elizabethan fairies are obviously mythological characters, yet Shakespeare cross-fertilized them with the legends of ancient Greece, in the story of Theseus and Hippolyta. When the play was performed in Elizabethan times, however, the ancient Greek court took on the trappings of the Elizabethan court, so the use of popular fairies made sense, and most likely made them more accessible to Shakespeare’s audience.As functioning archetypes, however, Shakespeare’s fairies may be read as equivalents of the Olympian figures and gods. As one of the sources of Shakespeare’s inspiration for his fairy play, McAlindon cites Chaucer’s appropriation of the Mars-Venus medieval myth, rooted in antiquity, and equates Shakespeare’s fairies to “Chaucer’s planetary gods” (50). While Oberon, Titania, and Puck may be equated with the gods of Olympus, the fairies themselves can be seen as nymphs, dryads, and satyrs. Upon viewing the characters within the same mythological sphere, archetypes are made manifest, and their relationships become clearer.Shakespeare appropriates the Greek rulers, Theseus and Hippolyta, from the Greek legends via Chaucer’s Knight’s Tale. In the majority of the productions of Midsummer, the characters of Theseus/Oberon, and Titania/Hippolyta (as well as many of the minor characters) have been double-cast, meaning that one person played both roles. Psychologically, this practice offers the thought that Theseus/Oberon and Titania/Hippolyta are different sides of the same coin. In their first encounter in the play, this may be seen as Titania accuses Oberon of being Hippolyta’s lover, and Oberon accuses Titania of loving Theseus, immediately fostering a connection between the fairy King and Queen with the Athenian royals:Titania: Why art thou here,Come from the farthest step of IndiaBut that, forsooth, the bouncing Amazon,Your buskin’d mistress and your warrior love,To Theseus must be wedded, and you comeTo give their bed joy and prosperity?Oberon: How canst thou thus, for shame, Titania,Glance at my credit with Hippolyta,Knowing I know thy love to Theseus?(II.i.68-76; emphasis added)Shakespeare’s play structurally facilitates double casting, which also seems to suggest dual aspects of each character.Theseus/Ophiuchus: Oberon/PoseidonIn Midsummer, Theseus is a lighthearted skeptic, who has put aside his warrior’s sword to woo Hippolyta, and who operates best by the light and reason of day. In legendary Greece, Theseus was a hero of Athens prior to the Trojan War. Theseus’s father, Aegeus, was childless, and he consulted the oracle at Delphi who advised him to keep his “wine skin sealed until he reached Athens” lest he die of grief there (Stapleton, 12). However, on his return to Athens, Aegeus visited his friend King Pittheus. Aegeus revealed to Pittheus the oracle’s message. Pittheus, knowing that a son of Aegeus would be great, got Aegeus drunk and had his daughter Aethra share her bed with him. Aethra consequently became pregnant with Theseus. Aegeus left Aethra in Troezen and told her to raise the child quietly, with Pittheus as his guardian. Theseus, however, was told that Poseidon was his father, and he named Poseidon as his protector. Theseus was known as a strong and accomplished wrestler, and also as the killer of the Minotaur and conqueror of its labyrinth. Theseus eventually returned to Athens to claim his birthright, and after many other adventures, became King of Athens. In due time, he conquered the Amazons who attacked Athens, taking their queen, Hippolyta (one of his many legendary female conquests), as his wife.Figure 3.1: The masculine plane~mythic constellations. © 1988, Stephen Marchesi, Random House.Figure 3.2: Constellation, Ophiuchus the Serpent Bearer (emphasis added). © 1999, Astronomy.In relationship to the masculine plane in the play’s star chart (Figures 2.20, 3.1-2), Theseus as a wrestler may be connected with Ophiuchus, the Serpent Bearer, who appears to be constraining the serpent. While Ophiuchus is not one of the twelve zodiacal signs, he nevertheless was quite significant in Shakespeare’s metaphoric view of the cosmos. Ophiuchus lies along the ecliptic, or the path of the sun. In medieval astronomy, while Ophiuchus was not regarded as a proper zodiacal constellation for purposes of astrological readings, Serpens, the serpent, which Ophiuchus bears, was quite important. The constellation Serpens consists of two segments, the head of the serpent, or dragon (Serpens caput), and the tail of the serpent (Serpens cauda). They were well known in Chaucer’s day, and recorded in the tables and calendars whch noted the moon’s cycles (North 95-6).Figure 3.3: Serpens cauda/caput in relationship to solar/lunar conjunctions (Roob 78). M. Maier, Septimana philosophica, Frankfurt. 1616.Figure 3.4: Serpens cauda caput and Ophiuchus along the ecliptic (emphasis added). © 1999, Astronomy.Twice a month, the moon on its own path passes through these two points—intersecting the ecliptic: once at the “moon’s north node,” or Serpens caput; the second time, through the “moon’s south node,” or Serpens cauda (Liungman 36). Eclipses take place when the “appropriate conjunctions or oppositions occur at points sufficiently near to one or other of the nodes of the Moon’s orbit, the head or tail of the Dragon [Serpens cauda/caput]” (North 97; Figures 3.3-4). Thus, when the paths of the sun (Sol) and moon (Luna) intersect, a conjunction (coniunctio) occurs. This is the celestial conjunction of opposites and macrocosmically represents the primary transforming theme of Midsummer. North also cites Shakespeare’s association of the “Dragon’s tail with lechery” (King Lear I.ii.35), and the human libido (450), elements of both which raise their heads (or tails) in Midsummer: in the calumnies of Oberon and Titania (II.i.61-76), and in the lovers’ libidinal romp in the forest.The importance of calculating these intersections was due to the fact that medievalists believed that conjunctions and oppositions of the sun and moon “are determinants of the weather, and even of certain events in human history” (North 100). This influence is obviously represented by Shakespeare in Midsummer in the unseasonal rains and the celebration of the royal marriage. According to North, blindness in one eye was “a debility of the moon,” and blindness in two eyes was possible when the sun and moon were in conjunction or opposition (450). In Midsummer, Shakespeare, through Helena, speaks poetically of the blindness of love:Things base and vile, holding no quantity,Love can transpose to form and dignity:Love looks not with the eyes, but with the mind,And therefore is wing’d Cupid painted blind;Nor hath Love’s mind of any judgement taste:Wings, and no eyes, figure unheedy haste.And therefore is Love said to be a child,Because in choice he is so oft beguil’d.As waggish boys, in game, themselves forswear,So the boy Love is perjured everywhere. (I.ii.231-241)This blindness results in multitudinous animist, or bestial, allusions throughout the play:Robin Goodfellow, Hobgoblin, Puck neighs “in likeness of a filly foal” (II.i.46);Titania may be enchanted by a “lion, bear, or wolf, or bull, meddling monkey, or busy ape” (II.i.180-1); or “ounce [lynx], or cat, or bear, or pard, or boar with bristled hair” (II.ii.29-30);Helena proffers to Demetrius that she be his “spaniel; [. . .] I will fawn on you” (II.i.203-4), and as “Apollo flies, and Daphne holds the chase; the dove pursues the griffin, the mild hind makes speed to catch the tiger,” so Helena pursues Demetrius (II.i.231-3);In Titania’s bower, the “snake throws her enamell’d skin” (II.i. 255);Helena is “ugly as a bear” and Demetrius is a “monster” (II.ii.93, 96);Hermia awakens from sleep, dreaming of a “serpent” (II.ii.144-149);Bottom is transformed into an ass (III.i); Titania with a “monster is in love (III.ii.6);Hermia calls Demetrius, “dog! cur! [. . .] a worm, an adder [. . ] serpent” (III.ii.65, 71-3);Lysander calls Hermia, “cat [. . .] burr [. . .] serpent,” “you minimus, of hindering knot-grass made; you bead, you acorn”(III.ii.260-1; 328-8);In the final waking of the lovers, Puck promises, “Jack shall have Jill, nought shall go ill; the man shall have his mare again, and all shall be well.” (III.ii.461-3).Jung asserts, “The more anthropomorphic and theriomorphic the terms become, the more obvious is the part played by creative fantasy and thus by the unconscious,” as they give rise to archetypes (Transference 3). In Midsummer, these bestial references suggest the primitive nature of the conflicts they embody, which occur primarily in the woods, or the realm of the unconscious.As in the case of many of the ancient constellations, Ophiuchus also has an earthly counterpart: Asclepius, the mythic founder of medicine, the doctor of the Argonauts. Legend has it that a serpent, entwined around a staff, bit and killed a man. However, another serpent appeared, bearing herbs, which Asclepius used to restore the man’s life. Because of this, the serpent became sacred to medicine as a symbol of regeneration. Asclepius was said to have brought many people back to life, including the son of King Minos of Crete. When Asclepius attempted to revive Orion who had been bitten by the scorpion, Pluto complained to Zeus that Asclepius would rob Pluto of the entire population of Hades. Zeus agreed: afraid of Asclepius’ healing power, he ended Asclepius’s life with a thunderbolt, and set him in the heavens with a new name, Ophiuchus, where he bears the serpent to this day (Dixon-Kennedy 228-9). According to Meadows, in Milton’s time, the constellation Asclepius/Ophiuchus was referred to as Serpentarius (57). This legend connects Ophiuchus not only to the chemical nature of alchemy, but also to the serpentine symbol of Hermes/Mercurius—the agent and vessel of the opus magnum. In the microcosm of Midsummer, Oberon’s hermetic agent is Puck. In the heavens, Ophiuchus’s serpent (Serpens cauda/caput) represents Hermes’s/Mercurius’s role in the alchemical symbolism in the play’s macrocosm.Figure 3.5: Summer Triangle/Lyra Mythic constellations. © 1988, Stephen Marchesi, Random House.Figure 3.6: Summer Triangle/Lyra (emphasis added). © 1999, Astronomy.In Figures 3.5-6, above the constellation Ophiuchus in the masculine plane is the constellation of the Summer Triangle, used by mariners for guidance. Using the astronomy of the play as an archetypal schema, the most obvious deific counterpart to Oberon, connected to Theseus, seems to be Poseidon, son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea, and brother of Zeus and Demeter. Long before Poseidon was god of the sea, he was called the “earth-shaker,” the god who held the earth and could produce earth tremors (Stapleton 182). He was also associated with the earth’s fertility, the waters, rain and rivers, which kept the earth alive. Thus, he was also worshiped as the god of fresh water. In Midsummer, the ability of the fairy king and queen to upset the course of nature is shown in the unseasonable, torrential floods resulting from their quarrel (II.i.81-117). In Act III.ii.388-395, Oberon states that he has “dallied with the love of the morning herself,” as the sun (which also alchemically suggests the masculine principle) rose over the sea. Again we see the connection of Oberon/Poseidon with water, fertility rites, and the ocean in particular. In Midsummer, fertility rites are evident in the rites of May. As Poseidon-Hippios (Lord of Horses), Poseidon also brought with him the ancient association with fertility as the god of the herdsmen and horse-keepers of a migrating race. When Demeter at one time changed herself into a mare and slipped in among the herds of Arcadia, Poseidon spotted the transformation, and turned himself into a horse as well, joined the herd, and mounted Demeter, which resulted in the birth of the steed Arion, the steed of Adrastus, King of Argos (Stapleton 66). If Oberon is thus equated with Poseidon-Hippios, might not Demeter also be equated with Titania? Is it any wonder, then, that Puck, being the agent of Poseidon-Hippios, turned Titania’s lover, Bottom, into an ass, parodying Titania’s archetypal relationship with Oberon?Hippolyta/Virgo: Titania/DemeterThe constellation Virgo dominates the feminine plane of the star chart (Figures 3.7-8). As such, Virgo, the maiden represents the chaste Amazon, Hippolyta. Hippolyta was a warrior maiden, who fought on horseback and was a huntress. Here we see a dual connection with the constellation of the Hunting Dogs, to Hippolyta, the huntress, and to the hunting grounds, the woods, which Titania rules. The Amazons’ origin was probably derived from the priestesses of the Moon Goddess (Artemis/Diana) who bore arms.Figure 3.7: Feminine plane~mythic constellations. © 1988 Stephen Marchesi, Random House.Figure 3.8: Constellations Virgo and Hunting Dogs (emphasis added). © 1999, Astronomy.Titania’s name means “descended from the Titans,” Cronus and Rhea, whose progeny were the Olympian gods (Herbert 41). Titania has been loosely linked in Elizabethan mythology with Artemis—twin sister to Apollo, the Greek counterpart of Diana, whose throne was a silver crescent moon (Brueton 61; Figure 3.9).Figure 3.9: Figure of the feminine archetype, Luna, represented in the shape of the crescent. Codex Urbanus Latinus 899. 15th century. (Jung, Psychology and Alchemy 405)The association of the feminine principle with the moon is ancient, and incorporates figures from Egyptian mythology (Isis), as well as to Demeter (the ancient earth mother), Diana/Artemis, and the Virgin Mary.Both chastity and fertility are attributes associated with the moon as feminine archetypes, especially in relation to the control of fluids, such as the tides, menstruation, and semen (Breuton 53,153-4). Water is primarily a symbol of the mother, of the womb, and also of the unconscious. Jung states that the unconscious “can be regarded as the mother or matrix of consciousness” (Transformation 218-19). The floods that occur unseasonably in Midsummer have dual significance: that of indicating the psychic disturbance in the unbalanced anima of Titania in relationship to the changeling boy, and that of serving as the watery womb of transformation for the lovers in the forest.The nature of the moon also suggests transformation: birth, growth, death, and rebirth, by virtue of its monthly cycles. The changing lunar phases represent the three aspects of the feminine: the virgin/maiden (waxing moon), the mother (full moon), and the crone (waning moon). The primary form of the anima is that of the mother, although at different times of life it may assume the form of the maiden or crone (hence the tripartite aspect of the goddess seen in the phases of the moon).However, Artemis/Diana has no power over the seasons, as Titania seems to have. Therefore, I propose that Titania’s Greek counterpart is Demeter, sister of Zeus and Poseidon. Demeter presided over the earth and its fertility as the ancient goddess of the fruitful earth and the Eleusinian mysteries (Stapleton 65-6). The myth of Demeter and her daughter, Persephone (also known as Kore), also embodies the triple aspect of the feminine archetype: Kore, the maiden; Demeter, the mother; and Hecate, the crone—associated with the darkness of the moon before rising, and its death before setting (Brueton 89). The cyclical change of seasons is represented in the story of Demeter and Kore, in which Kore was stolen by Hades and transported to the underworld for four months of the year. During those four months, the earth was barren, and only with the return of Kore was fruitfulness restored. The tripartite goddess—Kore/Demeter/Hecate—became, like the moon, a symbol of regeneration. The multiple associations of ancient goddesses with the moon are shown in Figure 3.10.Figure 3.10: Illustration of “the pagan goddesses as emanations of the lunar powers” (Roob 64). A. Kircher. Obeliscus Pamphilius, Rome. 1650.In Midsummer, the moon’s influence is directly connected to Titania and the supernatural realm of the woods—to which Hermia and Lysander “steal away,” which acts as both tomb and womb for the lovers, under the influence of Hecate—queen of the underworld. Interestingly enough, one of Hecate’s primary symbols was the snake (Aronson 227), and the snake or serpent also played an important role in initiation ceremonies—many of which occurred at the stage of the new moon, which was a symbol of new beginnings (Brueton 37, 123). In Midsummer, Hermia awakens from a dream calling for help from Lysander:Help me, Lysander, help me! Do thy bestTo pluck this crawling serpent from my breast!Ay, me, for pity! What a dream was here!Lysander, look how I do quake with fear.Methought a serpent ate my heart away. (II.ii.144-148).Puck refers to the moon goddesses, reigned in by Hecate, as he tells us of “we fairies that do run by the triple Hecate’s team, from the presence of the sun, following darkness like a dream” (V.i.369-372). The latent dangers of darkness, found in the chaos of the wood, are also aspects of Hecate’s negative but regenerative influence. In Midsummer, Hermia and Helena, as virginal maidens, represent Kore. Demeter, the mother, is represented in Titania’s connection with the changeling boy, as well as with the fairies’ procreative blessing of the bridal beds.Hippolyta, however, is connected to the self-sufficient aspect of the moon goddess, Diana/Artemis. June Singer asserts that the Amazon, who identified with Artemis, signifies an imbalance in Hippolyta’s ability to integrate the animus with her anima. Neither is Titania very far removed from Hippolyta in this aspect, for in her reluctance to give up the changeling boy, she embodies the “classic conflict between a matriarchal society, which seeks control of the male children, and a patriarchal society, which seeks control of the females” (Singer 48).Because of the significant role the changeling boy plays in the balance of anima/animus in the psychic world of Midsummer, we will now turn our attention to the archetype represented by the changeling boy—that of the primordial child.The Changeling Boy: The Primordial ChildIn Midsummer, the changeling boy is silent as well as nameless. As a character, he lacks a voice, and his role, while retained in the narrative of the play, is often visibly cut in many productions. However, his role is central to the poet’s artistic purposes in the play: the changeling child is the cause of the central conflict of the interior fairy play, and until this conflict in the play is resolved, no other conflict can be reconciled, in either wood or city. The changeling boy, as written by Shakespeare, is imagi
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solved Value Relevance of Accounting Information in the United Arab Emirates
/in /by adminValue Relevance of Accounting Information in the United Arab Emirates Jamal Barzegari Khanagha Faculty of Economics, Management and Accounting, Yazd University, Iran E-mail: barzegari@yazduni.ac.ir Tel: +989131519858 ABSTARCT: This paper examines the value relevance of accounting information in per and postperiods of International Financial Reporting Standards implementation using the regression and portfolio approaches for sample of the UAE companies. The results obtained from a combination of regression and portfolio approaches, show accounting information is value relevant in UAE stock market. A comparison of the results for the periods before and after adoption, based on both regression and portfolio approaches, shows a decline in value relevance of accounting information after the reform in accounting standards. It could be interpreted to mean that following to IFRS in UAE didn’t improve value relevancy of accounting information. However, results based on and portfolio approach shows that cash flows’ incremental information content increased for the post-IFRS period. Keywords: Value Relevance, IFRS, Accounting Information, UAE 1. Introduction Over the last three decades, the world economy and capital markets have become increasingly globalized and integrated. In this respect, the benefits of having one set of high-quality globally recognized financial reporting standards are significant. Since convergence and harmonization of national Generally Accepted Accounting Principles with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) promises “transparent, comparable and consistent financial information†to guide investors in making “optimal investment decisions†(Jacob & Madu, 2004). The harmonization of accounting standards is also absolutely vital to building long-term global financial stability, creating truly international capital markets and providing full transparency for credit management(Hansen, 2003). The United Arab Emirates (UAE), currently launching itself onto the world financial stage with the setting up of a stock exchange and actively pursuing foreign direct investment (FDI) by embracing globalization, and adopting IFRS (Irvine & Lucas, 2006). Wagdy (2001) asserts that investors’ need for reliable and relevant financial information has been the key factors of accounting reform in the Middle East. These two factors protect domestic and foreign investors from any fraud or misleading financial data. Value relevance approach measures both relevance and reliability because accounting information is reflected in the price (Barth, Beaver, & Landsman, 2001). however, value relevance approach is an instrument to estimate quality of accounting information, which is a prime importance to the well-functioning of the economy (Beuselinck, 2005). Despite all efforts to develop in financial markets, accounting and economic growth, a crucial gap in the literature remains: to the best of our knowledge, there is no empirical research to identify the effect of accounting standards reforms on value relevance of accounting information in the UAE. Consequently, this study aims to investigate the value relevance of accounting information in UAE. In particular, it measures whether the quality of accounting information has improved or whether it has not yet become relevant despite all efforts. The reminder of this paper is organized as follows. Continuance of this section contains background and literature review and followed by a review accounting in UAE. The second section related to methodology subjects and selecting data and sample. The third section discusses research findings. Summary and discussions are presented in the final section. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2011, pp.33-45 34 1.1. Background and Literature Review A value relevance study is evaluation of the relationship between accounting information and capital market values (market values). Beaver (2002) indicated that the theoretical groundwork of value relevance studies adopting a measurement approach is a combination of valuation theory plus contextual accounting and financial reporting arguments (accounting theory) that allows the researcher to predict how accounting variables and other information relating to market value will behave. Holthausen and Watts,(2001) suggest that value relevance studies use two different theories of accounting and standard setting to draw inferences: (i) “direct valuation†theory and (ii) “inputs-to equity-valuation†theory. Direct valuation theory proposes a link between accounting earnings and stock market value. In direct valuation theory, accounting earnings is intended to either measure or be combined with the equity market value changes or levels. However, Zaleha et al. (2008) point out that the conclusion usefulness paradigm proposes that accounting information is useful if utilized by users of financial statements for, or significantly associated with their decision making (Riahi Belkaoui, 2000) even though the information might not be stated at their best current value (Scott, 2000). Within this conception, the main users are those who make decisions having an impact on firms’ value, specifically decision-making by capital market participants (Beaver, 2002; Riahi Belkaoui, 2000). In discussing the concept of relevance with regard to accounting information, Riahi-Belkaoui (2000) believes that accounting information is relevant if the information can influence decisions made by decision makers (i.e., its value relevance concept). Studies seeking to demonstrate a link between accounting numbers and equity values were first published over 40 years ago. The first such article was by Miller and Modigliani (1966), which used data from the electricity industry to demonstrate that capitalized earnings on assets make the largest contribution to marketplace value. Ball and Brown (1968) and Beaver ( 1968) are generally recognized as the fundamental studies on the information value of accounting numbers. Ball and Brown showed that the information content of the earnings figure is related to stock prices, and Beaver observed both price and volume reactions to earnings reports. Numerous value relevance studies have established, one stream of literature focuses on whether the value relevance of accounting information has declined/increased over time. Prior research provides conflicting views. On the one hand, several prior literatures have found that the value relevance of accounting information has declined in recent years (Core, Guay, & Van Buskirk, 2003; Ely & Waymire, 1999; Francis & Schipper, 1999; Graham & King, 2000; Ho, C-S Liu, & Sohn., 2001; Lev & Zarowin, 1999; Marquardt & Wiedman., 2004; Thinggaarda & Damkierb, 2008). On the other hand, A number studies also have been carried out in recent years that showed value relevance of accounting information has increased. Qystein and Frode, (2007) evaluated the relevance of financial reporting over a relatively long period (over 40 years ). Their research results showed that the valuerelevance of Norwegian GAAP was non-declining throughout 1965 to 2004. Dung (2010) tested the value-relevance of financial statement information on the Vietnamese stock market. The results showed that the value relevance of accounting was statistically meaningful, though somewhat weaker than in other developed and emerging markets. Filip (2010) investigated the impact of the mandatory IFRS adoption on the value relevance of accounting in Romania. Findings suggest that the implementation of IFRS increased the value relevance of earnings. Aljifri and Khasharmeh (2006) investigated empirically the suitability of the international accounting standards (IASs) to the United Arab Emirates (UAE) environment. They used a variety of parametric and nonparametric approaches to examine the underlying factors that could affect the level of adoption of IASs and to evaluate the suitability of such adoption to the UAE environment (e.g. size of company, trading status, type of sector).The study found that there is a general consensus among the user groups (auditors, brokers, finance managers, and financial analysts) on the suitability of adoption of IASs in the UAE. In all of research studies that have been carried out there are no mention of the value relevance of accounting information in the UAE. To the best of our knowledge, there is no empirical research also that uses regression-variations and the portfolio-returns approaches to test of value relevance in this country. Therefore, an evaluation of the value relevance of accounting information, especially after changes in the economic and accounting environment in recent years is an important area to research. Value relevance of accounting information in the United Arab Emirates 35 1.2 Accounting in UAE There are three main regulatory authorities in the UAE corporate sector: the ministry of economy and planning, the central bank, and the emirates securities and authority of raw materials. In addition, the accountants and auditors association is the official body representing the accounting profession in the country. The compulsory disclosure requirements of state enterprises that each company must prepare financial statements, balance sheets, cash flow statements, statements of changes in capital, and the notes to the accounts. It should be noted that in the UAE, companies preparing their annual reports within two to three months of the end of fiscal year (Khaled Aljifri & Hussainey, 2007). According to Central Bank Circular No 20/99, banks, financial institutions and investment companies in the UAE are required to prepare their financial statements in accordance with the International Accounting Standards (IASs) with effect from January 1, 1999. In 2004, the UAE established the Dubai International Financial Centre (DIFC), which is an onshore capital market designated as a financial free zone. In 2006, the DIFC legal framework requires banks and companies listed on the Dubai International Foreign Affairs (DIFX) to implement International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). all companies listed on market in Abu Dhabi (ADSM) are required to publish IFRS financial statements since 2003 (Khaled Aljifri, 2008; Deloitte, 2007). 2. Methodology In this study, the regression-variations and the portfolio-returns approaches was used to investigate and to operationalize the value relevance of accounting information. It was because they provide different perspective on the issue of value relevance of accounting information. By using the regression-variations approach, we measured the value relevance as the percentage of variations in the returns or market value explained by the accounting figures. Portfolio-returns approach shows a portion of total returns that could be earned from financial statement information which control for changes in the volatility of market returns over time. 2.1. Regression-Variations Approach A regression-variations approach measures value relevance based on the explanatory power of accounting information as a measure of market value; the ability of earnings to explain annual marketadjusted returns (return model); and the ability of earnings and book values of equity to explain market values of equity (price model). 2.1.1 Earning Return Model A large volume of literature has examined the usefulness of earnings information by employing a market return model (Chen.C. J, Chen. S, & Su. X, 2001; Harris, Lang, & Peter, 1994). In particular, the return model developed by Easton and Harris (1991) has been immensely popular amongst value-relevance researchers (Ali & Zarowin, 1992; Amir, Harris, & Venuti, 1993; Chan & Seow, 1996; Chen.C. J et al., 2001; M. S. Harris & K. A. Muller, 1999; Harris et al., 1994; Haw & Qi, 1999), because it incorporates both earnings level and earnings changes as independent variables in explaining the dependent variable: annual market return on stock. The present study used Easton and Harris (1991) model with adjustments and suggested by Biddle et al. (1995) and used in subsequent research(M. Harris & K. Muller, 1999; Jun Lin & Chen, 2005; Kothari, 2000). Rjt = β0 + β1 EPSjt / Pjt-1 + β2 (EPSjt – EPSjt-1) / Pjt-1 + ejt Rjt: annual return (including cash dividends) of firm j shares for period t Pjt-1: stock price at date of accounting announcement for firm j during period t EPSjt: annual earnings per share for firm j during period t EPSjt – EPSjt-1: change annual earnings per share for firm j from period t-1 to t ejt: error term 2.1.2. Price Model Following numerous prior value-relevance studies (Amir et al., 1993; M. E. Barth, 1994; Burgstahler & Dichev, 1997; Filip & Raffournier, 2010; M. S. Harris & K. A. Muller, 1999; Landsman, 1986), a price model has also utilized in this study in addition to the return model. Unlike the return model, the price model investigates the impact of accounting information on the market valuation of, rather than return on, equity stock; furthermore, a price model examines the impact of not International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2011, pp.33-45 36 only earnings but also book value of equity on stock performance. Traditionally, earnings and book values are considered to contribute to value relevance (Burgstahler & Dichev, 1997; Ohlson, 1995). Currently, however, the main financial statements include income statement, balance sheet and cash flow statement. Thus the study used the model that shows all of the main financial statement as follows: Pjt = β0 + β1 BVPSjt + β2 EPSjt + β3 CFPSjt+ ejt Pjt: the market price per share of firm j at time t BVPSjt: book value of firm j at time t EPSjt: earnings of firm j for period ending at time t CFPSjt: Cash flow of firm j for period ending at time t ejt : error term 2.2. Portfolio-Returns Approach The portfolio-returns approach defines the value relevance of accounting measures as the proportion of information in security returns captured by the accounting measures (Alford, Jones, Leftwich, & Zmijewski., 1993; Chang, 1998; Francis & Schipper, 1999; Hung, 2001) . Thinggaarda and Damkierb (2008) further defined value relevance as the difference between the return on the long position and the return on the short position; that is, the market-adjusted return that can be earned on the long position and the market-adjusted return that can be lost on the short position. This approach measures value relevance as the total return that could be earned from a portfolio based on perfect foresight of earnings. Value relevance is scaled by the total return earned on a portfolio based on advance knowledge of market prices. In this study, this approach attempts to calculate the proportions of all information in security returns that are captured by the earnings, ROE and cash flows. This method aims to provide the evidence of value relevance of earnings, ROE and cash flows by forming the hedge portfolio based on this information. This study used two portfolios a) a portfolio selection based on sign (SIGN-∆EARN, SIGN-∆ROE, SIGN-∆CF); and b) a portfolio selection based on sign and magnitude (∆EARN, ∆ROE and ∆CF). 2.2.1 Portfolio Selection Based on Sign (SIGN-∆EARN) The Portfolio-Returns Approach is based on Alford et al. (1993), Francis and Schipper (1999), Hellstrom (2006) and Thinggaarda and Damkierb (2008). As an example, following is the procedure for selecting a portfolio based on sign of changes in EARN. First, an earnings-based hedge portfolio is created. The primary Firm-specific return (Pit-Pit-1+d)/Pit-1 is calculated for all firms over a 15 month period. The market-adjusted return on security j, R,t , is defined as the compound (with dividend) return minus the return on the value-weighted market portfolio for each year sample ( The study uses all share index return). All companies in the total sample are ranked according to the change in accounting earnings. The change in accounting earnings is calculated on a year basis. A hedge portfolio is formed by going long in shares with positive earning changes and short in shares with the negative earning changes. The market-adjusted return is later calculated for both the long position and short position as an average of returns for all companies included in the long short positions, respectively: Where Rj is a market-adjusted return for an individual company and NL and NS are the number of companies in the long position and in the short position, respectively. Note that NL and NS are equal. The hedge portfolio return (value relevance) is defined as the difference between the return on the long position and the return on the short position: that is, the market-adjusted return that can be earned on the long position and the market-adjusted return that can be lost on the short position: Second, for each accounting-based hedge portfolio and year, the market-adjusted returns on a portfolio formed on the basis of perfect foreknowledge of future stock returns are calculated. This portfolio takes long (short) positions in the stocks in each accounting-based hedge portfolio with positive (negative) 15-month market-adjusted returns. The market-adjusted return on this returns- Value relevance of accounting information in the United Arab Emirates 37 based hedge portfolio in year t is denoted , where H is the type of accounting hedge portfolio. The accounting-based hedge portfolio returns are expressed as a percentage of . This controls for time-series differences in the variation in market-adjusted returns (Francis & Schipper (1999) , and the resulting ratio (denoted %mkt) describes the proportion of all information impounded in stock prices that is captured by accounting information in a given period (Thinggaarda & Damkierb, 2008). 2.2.2 Portfolio Selection Based on Sign and Magnitude As mentioned above, Portfolio Selection based on sign and magnitude applies to ∆EARN, ∆ROE and ∆CF. following is a description for calculating the value relevance of earning with this method. The method for calculating other factors with the same ROE and cash flow is similar. The primary calculations of market-adjusted returns are similar, based on the sign of accounting information. For example, for the ∆EARNjt portfolio, we take long positions in the stocks with the highest 40% of ∆EARNj,t and short positions in the stocks with the lowest 40% of ∆EARNj,t, thereby disregarding the middle 20%. Thus, both the sign and the strength of the change in earnings are extracted from the total available information in financial statements. The market-adjusted return is afterwards calculated for both the long position and short position as an average of returns for all companies included in the long short positions, respectively. The hedge portfolio return (value relevance) is defined as the difference between the return on the long position and the return on the short position: that is, the market-adjusted return that can be earned on the long position and the market-adjusted return that can be lost on the short position. 2.3. Data and Sample The Data for this study were obtained from the Gulfbase database, the stock exchange website of the Abu Dhabi stock market (ADSM) and other database such as Bloomberg and DataStream. Observations were compared across data sources for data accuracy. The study limit to this period and select Abu Dhabi Securities Markets since a) Abu Dhabi Securities Market (ADSM) started operating in November 2000, b) ADSM is larger than The Dubai Financial Market (Khedhiri & Muhammad, 2008; Moustafa, 2004), c) all companies listed on the Abu Dhabi Securities Markets (ADSM) are required to publish IFRS financial statements since 2003 (Aljifri, 2008; Deloitte, 2007) and d) and because of availability of data. The UAE sample is selected from the period 2001-2008 based on following criteria. The number of companies selected was based on several criteria. First, since this study investigates the effects of accounting reform on value relevance of accounting information. It was necessary to have companies in existence both before and after the reform in order to examine the effect of the reform on the value relevance of accounting information. Therefore, companies that were listed just before or just after the reform were excluded. Second, for most companies in UAE the fiscal year ends of December. Since it was necessary to have common period for the calculation of stock returns accumulation across all the sample companies, whose fiscal years ended at some time other than December were excluded from the sample. Pursuant to the application of these selection criteria,, the final samples for UAE consisted of 136 firm-year observations for price model(17 companies for 8 years) and 119 firm-year observations for return model and also portfolio approach (17 companies for 7 years). 3. Research Findings 3.1. Descriptive Statistics Table 1 provides descriptive statistics for all the variables used in the regression analyses of UAE Data. The average per share market value of equity is 5.25UD for eight-year period with mean yearly standard deviation of 4.49UD. This show Investor obtained an average annual 0.362 market return during this seven -year period with an annual mean standard deviation of 1.04. The sample shows the high standard deviation in the dataset, which confirms the variability of firm’s size and industry classification traded in the Abu Dhabi stock market. Panel b and c show this situation was worse in the pre-reform period. Comparing standard deviations EPS, CFP and BVP show BVP has less standard deviation than the mean and others variables. It means better distribution than the other. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2011, pp.33-45 38 Table 1 Descriptive Statistics Name of variables N mean Std. Dev. median Panel A: Full Sample (2001,2-2008) P3 (Market price per share of firm ) 136 5.25 4.49 3.945 EPS (Earning per share) 136 .39 .43 .26 BVP (Book value of equity-per share) 136 2.73 2.46 1.98 CFP (cash flow per share) 136 .344 .93 .2 R (annual return ) 119 .362 1.04 .145 EPS/P (Earning per share / price) 119 .078 .057 .069 ∆EPS(change annual earnings per share) 119 .016 .063 .0127 Panel B: Before reform P3 (Market price per share of firm ) 34 2.26 1.42 2.08 EPS (Earning per share) 34 0.16 0.15 0.13 BVP (Book value of equity-per share) 34 1.38 1.11 1.11 CFP (cash flow per share) 34 0.28 0.39 0.14 R (annual return ) 17 0.11 0.18 0.09 EPS/P (Earning per share / price) 17 0.06 0.03 0.07 ∆EPS(change annual earnings per share) 17 0.00 0.04 0.00 Panel C: After reform P3 (Market price per share of firm ) 102 6.25 4.73 5.37 EPS (Earning per share) 102 0.47 0.47 0.31 BVP (Book value of equity-per share) 102 3.19 2.62 2.41 CFP (cash flow per share) 102 0.36 1.05 0.24 R (annual return ) 102 0.34 0.81 0.21 EPS/P (Earning per share / price) 102 0.08 0.06 0.07 ∆EPS(change annual earnings per share) 102 0.02 0.07 0.01 *All data are based on UAE’s dirham (UD) 3.2. The Inferential Findings As mentioned earlier, the objectives of this study are to examine value relevance of accounting information, and to compare the value relevance between two regimes in two periods. To operationalize value relevance of accounting information, two empirical valuation approaches are employed: the regression-variations approach and the portfolio return approach. Because these two approaches together provide different perspectives on the issue of value relevance of accounting information. 3.2.1 Regression-Variations Approach Result of coefficient test (redundant variables test and omitted variable test) for UAE suggests price model with two variables (see below of Table 2). Redundant variables test suggests the dropping of CFP variable from model with three variables (.1671>.05). Result of omitted variable test does not advise adding CFP variable to price model with two variable to increases the explanatory power of the model (.4245<.05). The first panel of Table 2 shows that the R2 for the price model specification is 76.6% for the total sample and just coefficient of EPS is statistically significant. Comparison of coefficients indicates that EPS of 4 has a higher explanatory power than any other variable. Therefore, according to price model accounting information in the Abu Dhabi Securities Market (ADSM) is value relevant. A comparison of the two results for before and after reform based on price model, demonstrates that the explanatory power (R2 ) for the period before reform is more than the period after reform. It means value relevance of accounting numbers decreased in the period after reform. Consequently, the result indicates reform in accounting standards did not improve relevancy of accounting numbers in Abu Dhabi Securities Market. In panel B of Table 2 provides the results of the return model. Explanatory power (R2 ) for the return model specification is 30.3% for the total sample. Therefore, according to these results it can be concluded that EPS level and changes EPS information in Abu Dhabi Securities Market are relevant for investors in their decision making. A comparison of explanatory power (R2 ) accounting numbers for the return model indicates decreasing of that in the period (2003-2008), after Value relevance of accounting information in the United Arab Emirates 39 reform in accounting standards. So, the result of the return model also indicates reform in accounting standards did not improve relevancy of accounting numbers in Abu Dhabi Securities Market. Table 2 Result of Regression-Variations Approach Panel A: Price Model Years pit=ß0+ß1bvpit+ß2epsit+eit pit=ß0+ß1bvpit+ß2epsit+ ß3cfpit+eit ß0 ß1 ß2 R2 N ß0 ß1 ß2 ß3 R2 2001- 08 t-st. 2.97 .22 4 .766 136 2.8 .22 4.1 .41 .77 3.4*** .69 7.8*** 3.38*** .7 8.6*** 2.9*** 2001- 02 t-st. .71 .19 7.7 .875 34 .68 .3 7.4 -.28 .90 6.7*** 2.2** 44*** 7*** 5.2*** 14*** -7*** 2003-08 t-st. 2.6 .06 5.6 .45 144 2.59 .02 5.4 .81 .51 5.5*** .49 15*** 6.2*** -.23 15*** 3.9*** Panel B: Return Model Years Rit= ß0+ß1epsit/pit-1+ß2(epsit- epsit-1)/pit-1 +eit ß0 ß1 ß2 R2 N Coefficient Tests of CFP Prob.f Redundant Variables .1671 Omitted Variables .4245 2001-08 t-st. .03 2.4 3.7 .303 119 .17 1.74** 2.11** 2002 t-st -.08 3.2 -.64 .302 17 -.9 2.34** -.63 2003-08 t-st .12 1.5 5.3 .282 102 .4 .66 1.73* Notes: ***, **, * indicates significance at 0.01, 0.05 and 0.10 levels T-statistics based on White heteroscedasticity-consistent standard errors. *for full sample of return model is used GLS with Cross Section Weight * For full sample of both price model are used GLS with Fixed cross section and for sub-samples of price model are used GLS with Cross Section Weight. 3.2.2 Portfolio-Returns Approach Panel A (second column) of table 3 presents results for each year in the investigated period, the mean market-adjusted return on each accounting hedge portfolio (%). The value 19.4 in below ∆EARN for year 2002 means person could earn 19.4 percent net market-adjusted (long position minus short position) in year 2002 if sign of earning changes was used to construct a portfolio. Since this is more than zero it can be concluded that earning changes is relevant for investors to make wellinformed decisions. A comparison of these numbers, ∆EARN (19.4%), ∆ROE (15.1%) and ∆CFP (- 4.4%) for year 2002 shows that cash flow information isn’t relevant for investors in making investment decisions while earnings and ROE information are relevant for investors. This also indicates present earning with (19.4%) is more relevant than the ROE with (15.1%). The value 58.1 under ∆EARN for year 2002 as % mkt ratio indicate that about 58.1% of the total perfect foresight returns are available to investors with advance knowledge of the sign of the earnings change. Panel B of table 3 reveals mean market-adjusted returns on accounting hedge portfolio (%) and that a proportion of the total hedge portfolio market-adjusted returns can be earned by the perknowledge of the accounting information (%mkt) for the investigated period. The results in column of based on the sign; clearly demonstrate that foreknowledge of information in the financial statements would be highly relevant for investors. Investment strategies based on a preview of the sign of the change in ROE would earn an average market-adjusted return throughout the sample period of about 30.1%, compared with 17.4% for the ∆EARN portfolio and 3.9% for the ∆CASH portfolio. On the other word, all the accounting measures seem to be value-relevant to investors. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2011, pp.33-45 40 The results in second and third line under sign and magnitude (panel B) indicate that accounting information are value-relevant in both period before (2002) and after reform (2003-2008) in Abu Dhabi Securities Market (ADSM). In first period value relevance of SIGN_∆EARN is more than the others while in second period SIGN_∆ROE information is more relevant than others. A comparison of result of SIGN_∆EARN shows that value relevance of accounting information has decreases in Abu Dhabi Securities Market stock exchange after accounting reform in this market. While the results based on SIGN-CASH and SIGN_∆ROE show increase in value relevance for the period after reform. Panel A (first column) of Table 3 shows, for each year in the investigated period, the mean market-adjusted return on each accounting hedge portfolio (%). The value 33.5 under ∆EARN column for year 2002 means person could earn 33.5 percent net market-adjusted return (long position minus short position) based on sign and magnitude of earning changes. Since this is more than zero we can conclude earning information is relevant for investors on the Abu Dhabi Securities Market (ADSM) at year 2002. A comparison of numbers, ∆EARN (33.5 %), ∆ROE (21.8%) and ∆CFP (-2.2%) in first line of panel A of Table 3 for year 2002 show that ∆EARN (33.5%) are more relevant than any others variable for investors. They also show present earning and ROE with 33.5% and 21.8% are more relevant than the cash flow with (-2.2%). The value 92.1 under ∆EARN for year 2002 as %mkt ratio indicates that about 92.1 % of the total market adjusted returns are available to investors with advance knowledge of the sign and magnitude the earnings change. A comparison of the numbers in line for year 2002 demonstrate that earnings and ROE changes are relevant while cash flow is not value relevance for investors in making decision. Table 3 Portfolio-Returns Approach Panel A: Mean market-adjusted returns on accounting hedge portfolio (%) and proportion of the total hedge portfolio market-adjusted returns can be earned by the per-knowledge of accounting information(%mkt)2002- 2008. Year Based on Sign & Magnitude Based on Sing ∆EARN ∆ROE ∆CFP ∆EARN ∆ROE ∆CFP % %mkt % %mkt % %mkt % %mkt % %mkt % %mkt 2002 33.5 92.1 21.8 52.3 -2.2 -5.4 19.4 58.1 15.1 45.1 -4.4 -13.3 2003 10.9 27.7 24.7 62.9 -4.2 -10.7 21.5 64.1 21.5 64.1 -7.3 -21.7 2004 127.3 67.0 126.1 66.4 -18.4 -9.7 -34.8 -22.6 114. 74.0 -11.1 -7.2 2005 19.5 22.4 31.0 35.7 11.1 12.8 30.5 42.4 -10.7 -14.8 -3.2 -4.5 2006 2.3 5.8 -4.6 -11.4 5.4 13.3 0.8 2.4 12.6 37.9 2.2 6.7 2007 -16.8 -15.4 8.7 7.9 -53.9 -49.4 49.4 49.2 46.5 46.3 -45.9 -45.8 2008 -5.3 -12.6 14.4 34.0 25.6 60.7 -3.3 -9.5 1.2 3.5 25.0 72.2 Panel B: Mean market-adjusted returns on accounting hedge portfolio (%) and proportion of the total hedge portfolio market-adjusted returns can be earned by the per-knowledge of accounting information (average for full sample, before and after reform) Year Based on Sign Based on Sing & Magnitude ∆EARN ∆ROE ∆CFP ∆EARN ∆ROE ∆CFP % %mkt % %mkt % %mkt % %mkt % %mkt % %mkt 2002-08 27.6 30.7 31.9 35.9 3.9 11.4 17.4 30.9 30.1 38.7 3.9 11.3 2002 33.5 92.1 18.4 44.2 0.3 0.9 19.4 58.1 15.1 45.1 0.0 0.0 2003-08 26.7 20.5 34.1 34.5 4.5 13.2 17.0 26.4 32.6 37.6 4.5 13.2 Panel B of Table 3 shows mean market-adjusted returns on accounting hedge portfolio (%) and proportion of the total hedge portfolio market-adjusted returns can be earned by the perknowledge of accounting information (%mkt) for the investigated period. The results in column based on the sign and magnitude, clearly demonstrate that foreknowledge of information in the financial
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These readings will introduce you to techniques and examples of the type of paper we are writing for the remainder of the semester, the ethnography. This is the study of a segment of culture, a subgroup of people. Your profile has set you up perfectly to take this new step; you’ll be interviewing, observing, and researching a group, rather than one person. Read these selections from our texts:1. 50 Essays, Barbara Ehrenreich, “Serving in Florida,” page 134-143;”Barbara EhrenreichServing in FloridaBorn in 1941 and raised in Butte, Montana, Barbara Ehrenreich earned a doctorate in biology before devoting herself to writing about culture and politics. She has written extensively on social class, work, gender, and politics in columns and in books, including The Worst Years of Our Lives: Irreverent Notes on a Decade of Greed (1990), Blood Rites: The Origins and History of the Passions for War (1997), Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By in America (2001), Bright-Sided: How the Relentless Promotion of Positive Thinking Has Undermined America (2009), and her newest book, Living with a Wild God: A Nonbeliever’s Search for the Truth about Everything (2014).“Serving in Florida†comes from Nickel and Dimed. In the book, Ehrenreich recounts her experiences trying to live on the income earned working a number of low-paying jobs. While these stories are engrossing, that is not the only reason they are in the book. As you read the stories in “Serving in Florida,†keep an eye out for the ways in which Ehrenreich uses these stories to make a number of points about contemporary American life.I could drift along like this, in some dreamy proletarian idyll, except for two things. One is management. If I have kept this subject to the margins so far it is because I still flinch to think that I spent all those weeks under the surveillance of men (and later women) whose job it was to monitor my behavior for signs of sloth, theft, drug abuse, or worse. Not that managers and especially “assistant managers†in low-wage settings like this are exactly the class enemy. Mostly, in the restaurant business, they are former cooks still capable of pinch-hitting in the kitchen, just as in hotels they are likely to be former clerks, and paid a salary of only about $400 a week. But everyone knows they have crossed over to the other side, which is, crudely put, corporate as opposed to human. Cooks want to prepare tasty meals, servers want to serve them graciously, but managers are there for only one reason — to make sure that money is made for some theoretical entity, the corporation, which exists far away in Chicago or New York, if a corporation can be said to have a physical existence at all. Reflecting on her career, Gail tells me ruefully that she swore, years ago, never to work for a corporation again. “They don’t cut you no slack. You give and you give and they take.â€Managers can sit — for hours at a time if they want — but it’s their job to see that no one else ever does, even when there’s nothing to do, and this is why, for servers, slow times can be as exhausting as rushes. You start dragging out each little chore because if the manager on duty catches you in an idle moment he will give you something far nastier to do. So I wipe, I clean, I consolidate catsup bottles and recheck the cheesecake supply, even tour the tables to make sure the customer evaluation forms are all standing perkily in their places — wondering all the time how many calories I burn in these strictly theatrical exercises. In desperation, I even take the desserts out of their glass display case and freshen them up with whipped cream and bright new maraschino cherries; anything to look busy. When, on a particularly dead afternoon, Stu finds me glancing at a USA Today a customer has left behind, he assigns me to vacuum the entire floor with the broken vacuum cleaner, which has a handle only two feet long, and the only way to do that without incurring orthopedic damage is to proceed from spot to spot on your knees.On my first Friday at Hearthside there is a “mandatory meeting for all restaurant employees,†which I attend, eager for insight into our overall marketing strategy and the niche (your basic Ohio cuisine with a tropical twist?) we aim to inhabit. But there is no “we†at this meeting. Phillip, our top manager except for an occasional “consultant†sent out by corporate headquarters, opens it with a sneer: “The break room — it’s disgusting. Butts in the ashtrays, newspapers lying around, crumbs.†This windowless little room, which also houses the time clock for the entire hotel, is where we stash our bags and civilian clothes and take our half-hour meal breaks. But a break room is not a right, he tells us, it can be taken away. We should also know that the lockers in the break room and whatever is in them can be searched at any time. Then comes gossip; there has been gossip; gossip (which seems to mean employees talking among themselves) must stop. Off-duty employees are henceforth barred from eating at the restaurant, because “other servers gather around them and gossip.†When Phillip has exhausted his agenda of rebukes, Joan complains about the condition of the ladies’ room and I throw in my two bits about the vacuum cleaner. But I don’t see any backup coming from my fellow servers, each of whom has slipped into her own personal funk; Gail, my role model, stares sorrowfully at a point six inches from her nose. The meeting ends when Andy, one of the cooks, gets up, muttering about breaking up his day off for this almighty bullshit.Just four days later we are suddenly summoned into the kitchen at 3:30 P.M., even though there are live tables on the floor. We all — about ten of us — stand around Phillip, who announces grimly that there has been a report of some “drug activity†on the night shift and that, as a result, we are now to be a “drug-free†workplace, meaning that all new hires will be tested and possibly also current employees on a random basis. I am glad that this part of the kitchen is so dark because I find myself blushing as hard as if I had been caught toking up in the ladies’ room myself: I haven’t been treated this way — lined up in the corridor, threatened with locker searches, peppered with carelessly aimed accusations — since at least junior high school. Back on the floor, Joan cracks, “Next they’ll be telling us we can’t have sex on the job.†When I ask Stu what happened to inspire the crackdown, he just mutters about “management decisions†and takes the opportunity to upbraid Gail and me for being too generous with the rolls. From now on there’s to be only one per customer and it goes out with the dinner, not with the salad. He’s also been riding the cooks, prompting Andy to come out of the kitchen and observe — with the serenity of a man whose customary implement is a butcher knife — that “Stu has a death wish today.â€Later in the evening, the gossip crystallizes around the theory that Stu is himself the drug culprit, that he uses the restaurant phone to order up marijuana and sends one of the late servers out to fetch it for him. The server was caught and she may have ratted out Stu, at least enough to cast some suspicion on him, thus accounting for his pissy behavior. Who knows? Personally, I’m ready to believe anything bad about Stu, who serves no evident function and presumes too much on our common ethnicity, sidling up to me one night to engage in a little nativism directed at the Haitian immigrants: “I feel like I’m the foreigner here. They’re taking over the country.†Still later that evening, the drug in question escalates to crack. Lionel, the busboy, entertains us for the rest of the shift by standing just behind Stu’s back and sucking deliriously on an imaginary joint or maybe a pipe.The other problem, in addition to the less-than-nurturing management style, is that this job shows no sign of being financially viable. You might imagine, from a comfortable distance, that people who live, year in and year out, on $6 to $10 an hour have discovered some survival stratagems unknown to the middle class. But no. It’s not hard to get my coworkers talking about their living situations, because housing, in almost every case, is the principal source of disruption in their lives, the first thing they fill you in on when they arrive for their shifts. After a week, I have compiled the following survey:Gail is sharing a room in a well-known downtown flophouse for $250 a week. Her roommate, a male friend, has begun hitting on her, driving her nuts, but the rent would be impossible alone.Claude, the Haitian cook, is desperate to get out of the two-room apartment he shares with his girlfriend and two other, unrelated people. As far as I can determine, the other Haitian men live in similarly crowded situations.Annette, a twenty-year-old server who is six months pregnant and abandoned by her boyfriend, lives with her mother, a postal clerk.Marianne, who is a breakfast server, and her boyfriend are paying $170 a week for a one-person trailer.Billy, who at $10 an hour is the wealthiest of us, lives in the trailer he owns, paying only the $400-a-month lot fee.The other white cook, Andy, lives on his dry-docked boat, which, as far as I can tell from his loving descriptions, can’t be more than twenty feet long. He offers to take me out on it once it’s repaired, but the offer comes with inquiries as to my marital status, so I do not follow up on it.Tina, another server, and her husband are paying $60 a night for a room in the Days Inn. This is because they have no car and the Days Inn is in walking distance of the Hearthside. When Marianne is tossed out of her trailer for subletting (which is against trailer park rules), she leaves her boyfriend and moves in with Tina and her husband.Joan, who had fooled me with her numerous and tasteful outfits (hostesses wear their own clothes), lives in a van parked behind a shopping center at night and showers in Tina’s motel room. The clothes are from thrift shops.1It strikes me, in my middle-class solipsism, that there is gross improvidence in some of these arrangements. When Gail and I are wrapping silverware in napkins — the only task for which we are permitted to sit — she tells me she is thinking of escaping from her roommate by moving into the Days Inn herself. I am astounded: how she can even think of paying $40 to $60 a day? But if I was afraid of sounding like a social worker, I have come out just sounding like a fool. She squints at me in disbelief: “And where am I supposed to get a month’s rent and a month’s deposit for an apartment?†I’d been feeling pretty smug about my $500 efficiency, but of course it was made possible only by the $1,300 I had allotted myself for start-up costs when I began my low-wage life: $1,000 for the first month’s rent and deposit, $100 for initial groceries and cash in my pocket, $200 stuffed away for emergencies. In poverty, as in certain propositions in physics, starting conditions are everything.There are no secret economies that nourish the poor; on the contrary, there are a host of special costs. If you can’t put up the two months’ rent you need to secure an apartment, you end up paying through the nose for a room by the week. If you have only a room, with a hot plate at best, you can’t save by cooking up huge lentil stews that can be frozen for the week ahead. You eat fast food or the hot dogs and Styrofoam cups of soup that can be microwaved in a convenience store. If you have no money for health insurance — and the Hearthside’s niggardly plan kicks in only after three months — you go without routine care or prescription drugs and end up paying the price. Gail, for example, was doing fine, healthwise anyway, until she ran out of money for estrogen pills. She is supposed to be on the company health plan by now, but they claim to have lost her application form and to be beginning the paperwork all over again. So she spends $9 a pop for pills to control the migraines she wouldn’t have, she insists, if her estrogen supplements were covered. Similarly, Marianne’s boyfriend lost his job as a roofer because he missed so much time after getting a cut on his foot for which he couldn’t afford the prescribed antibiotic.My own situation, when I sit down to assess it after two weeks of work, would not be much better if this were my actual life. The seductive thing about waitressing is that you don’t have to wait for payday to feel a few bills in your pocket, and my tips usually cover meals and gas, plus something left over to stuff into the kitchen drawer I use as a bank. But as the tourist business slows in the summer heat, I sometimes leave work with only $20 in tips (the gross is higher, but servers share about 15 percent of their tips with the busboys and bartenders). With wages included, this amounts to about the minimum wage of $5.15 an hour. The sum in the drawer is piling up but at the present rate of accumulation will be more than $100 short of my rent when the end of the month comes around. Nor can I see any expenses to cut. True, I haven’t gone the lentil stew route yet, but that’s because I don’t have a large cooking pot, potholders, or a ladle to stir with (which would cost a total of about $30 at Kmart, somewhat less at a thrift store), not to mention onions, carrots, and the indispensable bay leaf. I do make my lunch almost every day — usually some slow-burning, high-protein combo like frozen chicken patties with melted cheese on top and canned pinto beans on the side. Dinner is at the Hearthside, which offers its employees a choice of BLT, fish sandwich, or hamburger for only $2. The burger lasts longest, especially if it’s heaped with gut-puckering jalapeños, but by midnight my stomach is growling again.So unless I want to start using my car as a residence, I have to find a second or an alternative job. I call all the hotels I’d filled out housekeeping applications at weeks ago — the Hyatt, Holiday Inn, Econo Lodge, HoJo’s, Best Western, plus a half dozen locally run guest houses. Nothing. Then I start making the rounds again, wasting whole mornings waiting for some assistant manager to show up, even dipping into places so creepy that the front-desk clerk greets you from behind bullet-proof glass and sells pints of liquor over the counter. But either someone has exposed my real-life housekeeping habits — which are, shall we say, mellow — or I am at the wrong end of some infallible ethnic equation: most, but by no means all, of the working housekeepers I see on my job searches are African Americans, Spanish-speaking, or refugees from the Central European post-Communist world, while servers are almost invariably white and monolingually English-speaking. When I finally get a positive response, I have been identified once again as server material. Jerry’s — again, not the real name — which is part of a well-known national chain and physically attached here to another budget hotel, is ready to use me at once. The prospect is both exciting and terrifying because, with about the same number of tables and counter seats, Jerry’s attracts three or four times the volume of customers as the gloomy old Hearthside.Picture a fat person’s hell, and I don’t mean a place with no food. Instead there is everything you might eat if eating had no bodily consequences — the cheese fries, the chicken-fried steaks, the fudge-laden desserts — only here every bit must be paid for, one way or another, in human discomfort. The kitchen is a cavern, a stomach leading to the lower intestine that is the garbage and dishwashing area, from which issue bizarre smells combining the edible and the offal: creamy carrion, pizza barf, and that unique and enigmatic Jerry’s scent, citrus fart. The floor is slick with spills, forcing us to walk through the kitchen with tiny steps, like Susan McDougal in leg irons. Sinks everywhere are clogged with scraps of lettuce, decomposing lemon wedges, water-logged toast crusts. Put your hand down on any counter and you risk being stuck to it by the film of ancient syrup spills, and this is unfortunate because hands are utensils here, used for scooping up lettuce onto the salad plates, lifting out pie slices, and even moving hash browns from one plate to another. The regulation poster in the single unisex rest room admonishes us to wash our hands thoroughly, and even offers instructions for doing so, but there is always some vital substance missing — soap, paper towels, toilet paper — and I never found all three at once. You learn to stuff your pockets with napkins before going in there, and too bad about the customers, who must eat, although they don’t realize it, almost literally out of our hands.The break room summarizes the whole situation: there is none, because there are no breaks at Jerry’s. For six to eight hours in a row, you never sit except to pee. Actually, there are three folding chairs at a table immediately adjacent to the bathroom, but hardly anyone ever sits in this, the very rectum of the gastroarchitectural system. Rather, the function of the peri-toilet area is to house the ashtrays in which servers and dishwashers leave their cigarettes burning at all times, like votive candles, so they don’t have to waste time lighting up again when they dash back here for a puff. Almost everyone smokes as if their pulmonary well-being depended on it — the multinational mélange of cooks; the dishwashers, who are all Czechs here; the servers, who are American natives — creating an atmosphere in which oxygen is only an occasional pollutant. My first morning at Jerry’s, when the hypoglycemic shakes set in, I complain to one of my fellow servers that I don’t understand how she can go so long without food. “Well, I don’t understand how you can go so long without a cigarette,†she responds in a tone of reproach. Because work is what you do for others; smoking is what you do for yourself. I don’t know why the antismoking crusaders have never grasped the element of defiant self-nurturance that makes the habit so endearing to its victims — as if, in the American workplace, the only thing people have to call their own is the tumors they are nourishing and the spare moments they devote to feeding them.Now, the Industrial Revolution is not an easy transition, especially, in my experience, when you have to zip through it in just a couple of days. I have gone from craft work straight into the factory, from the air-conditioned morgue of the Hearthside directly into the flames. Customers arrive in human waves, sometimes disgorged fifty at a time from their tour buses, puckish and whiny. Instead of two “girls†on the floor at once, there can be as many as six of us running around in our brilliant pink-and-orange Hawaiian shirts. Conversations, either with customers or with fellow employees, seldom last more than twenty seconds at a time. On my first day, in fact, I am hurt by my sister servers’ coldness. My mentor for the day is a supremely competent, emotionally uninflected twenty-three-year-old, and the others, who gossip a little among themselves about the real reason someone is out sick today and the size of the bail bond someone else has had to pay, ignore me completely. On my second day, I find out why. “Well, it’s good to see you again,†one of them says in greeting. “Hardly anyone comes back after the first day.†I feel powerfully vindicated — a survivor — but it would take a long time, probably months, before I could hope to be accepted into this sorority.I start out with the beautiful, heroic idea of handling the two jobs at once, and for two days I almost do it: working the breakfast/lunch shift at Jerry’s from 8:00 till 2:00, arriving at the Hearthside a few minutes late, at 2:10, and attempting to hold out until 10:00. In the few minutes I have between jobs, I pick up a spicy chicken sandwich at the Wendy’s drive-through window, gobble it down in the car, and change from khaki slacks to black, from Hawaiian to rust-colored polo. There is a problem, though. When, during the 3:00–4:00 o’clock dead time, I finally sit down to wrap silver, my flesh seems to bond to the seat. I try to refuel with a purloined cup of clam chowder, as I’ve seen Gail and Joan do dozens of times, but Stu catches me and hisses “No eating!†although there’s not a customer around to be offended by the sight of food making contact with a server’s lips. So I tell Gail I’m going to quit, and she hugs me and says she might just follow me to Jerry’s herself.But the chances of this are minuscule. She has left the flophouse and her annoying roommate and is back to living in her truck. But, guess what, she reports to me excitedly later that evening. Phillip has given her permission to park overnight in the hotel parking lot, as long as she keeps out of sight, and the parking lot should be totally safe since it’s patrolled by a hotel security guard! With the Hearthside offering benefits like that, how could anyone think of leaving? This must be Phillip’s theory, anyway. He accepts my resignation with a shrug, his main concern being that I return my two polo shirts and aprons.Gail would have triumphed at Jerry’s, I’m sure, but for me it’s a crash course in exhaustion management. Years ago, the kindly fry cook who trained me to waitress at a Los Angeles truck stop used to say: Never make an unnecessary trip; if you don’t have to walk fast, walk slow; if you don’t have to walk, stand. But at Jerry’s the effort of distinguishing necessary from unnecessary and urgent from whenever would itself be too much of an energy drain. The only thing to do is to treat each shift as a one-time-only emergency: you’ve got fifty starving people out there, lying scattered on the battlefield, so get out there and feed them! Forget that you will have to do this again tomorrow, forget that you will have to be alert enough to dodge the drunks on the drive home tonight — just burn, burn, burn! Ideally, at some point you enter what servers call a “rhythm†and psychologists term a “flow state,†where signals pass from the sense organs directly to the muscles, bypassing the cerebral cortex, and a Zen-like emptiness sets in. I’m on a 2:00–10:00 P.M. shift now, and a male server from the morning shift tells me about the time he “pulled a triple†— three shifts in a row, all the way around the clock — and then got off and had a drink and met this girl, and maybe he shouldn’t tell me this, but they had sex right then and there and it was like beautiful. . . .” “Ehrenreich builds her argument about the difficulties of living on minimum or near-minimum wage through her use of examples. Her argument is well constructed and her examples plentiful, but the effectiveness of many of her examples comes from their being part of a story. By looking closely at one of the stories she tells about her experiences and the experiences of the men and women she works with, describe how Ehrenreich embeds examples in stories about individuals.”2. 50 Essays, Lars Eighner, “On Dumpster Diving,” page 144-156,”Lars EighnerOn Dumpster DivingBorn in Texas in 1948, Lars Eighner became famous with the publication of his memoir Travels with Lizbeth: Three Years on the Road and on the Streets (1993). The memoir of his (and his dog’s) homelessness, Travels with Lizbeth, was a great success but was not enough to keep Eighner and Lizbeth off the streets. Eventually with the support of friends, new housing was found for them, but Lizbeth died in 1998. Eighner continues to write fiction, essays, and erotica and has a new dog named Wilma.“On Dumpster Diving†is the essay that led to the writing of what was to become the rest of Travels with Lizbeth. In it Eighner explains one aspect of his life during the three hard years that are the subject of his memoir — the process of feeding himself from the refuse of others. The clear-eyed way in which he describes this process and the manner in which he situates it in the larger culture make this essay worthy of careful reading.Long before I began Dumpster diving I was impressed with Dumpsters, enough so that I wrote the Merriam-Webster research service to discover what I could about the word “Dumpster.†I learned from them that “Dumpster†is a proprietary word belonging to the Dempster Dumpster company.Since then I have dutifully capitalized the word although it was lowercased in almost all of the citations Merriam-Webster photocopied for me. Dempster’s word is too apt. I have never heard these things called anything but Dumpsters. I do not know anyone who knows the generic name for these objects. From time to time, however, I hear a wino or hobo give some corrupted credit to the original and call them Dipsy Dumpsters.I began Dumpster diving about a year before I became homeless.I prefer the term “scavenging†and use the word “scrounging†when I mean to be obscure. I have heard people, evidently meaning to be polite, using the word “foraging,†but I prefer to reserve that word for gathering nuts and berries and such which I do also according to the season and the opportunity. “Dumpster diving†seems to me to be a little too cute and, in my case, inaccurate because I lack the athletic ability to lower myself into the Dumpsters as the true divers do, much to their increased profit.I like the frankness of the word “scavenging,†which I can hardly think of without picturing a big black snail on an aquarium wall. I live from the refuse of others. I am a scavenger. I think it a sound and honorable niche, although if I could I would naturally prefer to live the comfortable consumer life, perhaps — and only perhaps — as a slightly less wasteful consumer owing to what I have learned as a scavenger.While my dog Lizbeth and I were still living in the house on Avenue B in Austin, as my savings ran out, I put almost all my sporadic income into rent. The necessities of daily life I began to extract from Dumpsters. Yes, we ate from Dumpsters. Except for jeans, all my clothes came from Dumpsters. Boom boxes, candles, bedding, toilet paper, medicine, books, a typewriter, a virgin male love doll, change sometimes amounting to many dollars: I acquired many things from the Dumpsters.I have learned much as a scavenger. I mean to put some of what I have learned down here, beginning with the practical art of Dumpster diving and proceeding to the abstract.What is safe to eat?After all, the finding of objects is becoming something of an urban art. Even respectable employed people will sometimes find something tempting sticking out of a Dumpster or standing beside one. Quite a number of people, not all of them of the bohemian type, are willing to brag that they found this or that piece in the trash. But eating from Dumpsters is the thing that separates the dilettanti from the professionals.Eating safely from the Dumpsters involves three principles: using the senses and common sense to evaluate the condition of the found materials, knowing the Dumpsters of a given area and checking them regularly, and seeking always to answer the question “Why was this discarded?â€Perhaps everyone who has a kitchen and a regular supply of groceries has, at one time or another, made a sandwich and eaten half of it before discovering mold on the bread or got a mouthful of milk before realizing the milk had turned. Nothing of the sort is likely to happen to a Dumpster diver because he is constantly reminded that most food is discarded for a reason. Yet a lot of perfectly good food can be found in Dumpsters.Canned goods, for example, turn up fairly often in the Dumpsters I frequent. All except the most phobic people would be willing to eat from a can even if it came from a Dumpster. Canned goods are among the safest of foods to be found in Dumpsters, but are not utterly foolproof.Although very rare with modern canning methods, botulism is a possibility. Most other forms of food poisoning seldom do lasting harm to a healthy person. But botulism is almost certainly fatal and often the first symptom is death. Except for carbonated beverages, all canned goods should contain a slight vacuum and suck air when first punctured. Bulging, rusty, dented cans and cans that spew when punctured should be avoided, especially when the contents are not very acidic or syrupy.Heat can break down the botulin, but this requires much more cooking than most people do to canned goods. To the extent that botulism occurs at all, of course, it can occur in cans on pantry shelves as well as in cans from Dumpsters. Need I say that home-canned goods found in Dumpsters are simply too risky to be recommended.From time to time one of my companions, aware of the source of my provisions, will ask, “Do you think these crackers are really safe to eat?†For some reason it is most often the crackers they ask about.This question always makes me angry. Of course I would not offer my companion anything I had doubts about. But more than that I wonder why he cannot evaluate the condition of the crackers for himself. I have no special knowledge and I have been wrong before. Since he knows where the food comes from, it seems to me he ought to assume some of the responsibility for deciding what he will put in his mouth.For myself I have few qualms about dry foods such as crackers, cookies, cereal, chips, and pasta if they are free of visible contaminates and still dry and crisp. Most often such things are found in the original packaging, which is not so much a positive sign as it is the absence of a negative one.Raw fruits and vegetables with intact skins seem perfectly safe to me, excluding of course the obviously rotten. Many are discarded for minor imperfections which can be pared away. Leafy vegetables, grapes, cauliflower, broccoli, and similar things may be contaminated by liquids and may be impractical to wash.Candy, especially hard candy, is usually safe if it has not drawn ants. Chocolate is often discarded only because it has become discolored as the cocoa butter de-emulsified. Candying after all is one method of food preservation because pathogens do not like very sugary substances.All of these foods might be found in any Dumpster and can be evaluated with some confidence largely on the basis of appearance. Beyond these are foods which cannot be correctly evaluated without additional information.I began scavenging by pulling pizzas out of the Dumpster behind a pizza delivery shop. In general prepared food requires caution, but in this case I knew when the shop closed and went to the Dumpster as soon as the last of the help left.Such shops often get prank orders, called “bogus.†Because help seldom stays long at these places pizzas are often made with the wrong topping, refused on delivery for being cold, or baked incorrectly. The products to be discarded are boxed up because inventory is kept by counting boxes: a boxed pizza can be written off; an unboxed pizza does not exist.I never placed a bogus order to increase the supply of pizzas and I believe no one else was scavenging in this Dumpster. But the people in the shop became suspicious and began to retain their garbage in the shop overnight.While it lasted I had a steady supply of fresh, sometimes warm pizza. Because I knew the Dumpster I knew the source of the pizza, and because I visited the Dumpster regularly I knew what was fresh and what was yesterday’s.The area I frequent is inhabited by many affluent college students. I am not here by chance; the Dumpsters in this area are very rich. Students throw out many good things, including food. In particular they tend to throw everything out when they move at the end of a semester, before and
solved View the assigned Healthcare Law LearnScape interactive episode in the
/in /by adminView the assigned Healthcare Law LearnScape interactive episode in the Jones & Bartlett website (DB2 LearnScape Case Study). You will be presented with a negligence case stemming from an incident in the hospital. You must interview staff members and work with the General Counsel to determine whether there is liability for negligence and medical malpractice.
Based on the information you gathered from the LearnScape video interviews, on your research, and on a biblical worldview, analyze this incident and write your recommendation to the Chief Counsel regarding negligence/malpractice liability. Consider liability for both the hospital and for employees. Directly address the four elements required to prove negligence:
Duty to care
Breach of duty
Injury
Causation (specifically foreseeability)
Submit your analysis as the Discussion thread. Title your thread “Liable” or “Not Liable” to reflect your conclusion.
We’re here this afternoon with brand and asked to bind. Who’s a personal injury attorney? He is an attorney with over be a partner with over b. Hawkins and right. And we’re going to talk this afternoon about malpractice and an attorney’s perspective on malpractice. So tell us if you want a little bit about your practice, what kinds of cases you deal with on a routine basis, particularly as they relate to healthcare professions and malpractice. Sure. I am. When I tell people I do I say I do civil litigation, which means a lot of different things to a lot of different people and to people who aren’t in the legal field. It doesn’t really mean anything. But I spend most of my time doing personal injury cases, which include things like auto accident cases, slip and fall cases, medical malpractice cases. But I’ll also do some other things. I do contract disputes, business partnership disputes, things like that as well, but I spend the majority of my time doing personal injury cases. And actually those business cases, the contracts and the property would also relate to a lot of our professionals because they’re dealing with contracts, they’re dealing with property. But I suspect a lot of them are mostly concerned when they deal with lawyers with the malpractice issues. That’s right. So what kind of cases do you typically see on the malpractice sign? There could be several things. Obviously, we’ve all heard horror stories about sponges loved inside of a patient after a surgery that has happened. It’s happened here in Lynchburg, happens in other places, but what we see most of the time is failure to diagnose or misdiagnosis or even failure to communicate a diagnosis. Probably the majority of malpractice cases that I see has something to do with a misdiagnosis or the failure to diagnose or to run the appropriate test to to make that diagnosis, in this case is a very difficult, but those would probably be the most frequent medical malpractice cases that I see. So when we hear about defensive medicine then running all kinds of additional tests, is that in response to these failure to diagnose cases, I would imagine, although I don’t think the defensive medicine is as prevalent as one would think. I think doctors ought to run the appropriate test. And there are all kinds of training in medical schools that will teach you how to know what test to take. But if you have an 80 year-old person with osteoporosis come in and they are complaining of back pain. You probably ought to x-ray the thoracic spine and the cervical spine and the lumbar spine. Just to make sure that you can identify a fracture and you don’t send them home with a fracture and T spine when they’re complaining of mid back pain and you think that they’re pointing at the lumbar spine. Here, there are things like that that a doctor really should do. That’s not, I wouldn’t classify as defensive medicine. I would classify it as following the standard of care. Talk a little bit, if you would, about that standard of care. Are professionals know a little bit about negligence and that there is a duty and standard of care. How does that play into the lawsuits? It’s essential before in Virginia, before you can file and start a lawsuit, you have to have an opinion from a doctor that says that the offending doctor violated the standard of care and that violation of the standard of care lead to the patient’s damages. That is so important in a medical malpractice case, a case that if you file without it, you’re going to face sanctions maybe from the bar, but certainly from the court. When the doctors bring that to light and they ask for an in camera review of your certification of marriage. And if you don’t have that certification of merit, you’re going to get sanctioned by the court. Now that would be true for cases against doctors. Is that also true for hospitals and nurses and other professionals? Doctors and hospitals. If if the doctor is working in the hospital or working for the hospital, then the doctor and the hospital would both be jointly defendant in the lawsuit. So yes, it is. It is very true any medical malpractice case which deals with the treatment of individual in the healthcare realm, is going to be classified as a medical malpractice case. And if the hospital employees, the doctor who committed a malpractice in the hospital would be a defendant in a certificate of merit is required before you proceed with the litigation. And how many of these cases actually go to trial. We see we see movies and in movies and TV show everything as the trial. But I suspect med mouse, like everything else, very few actually end up in a trial. That is true. Before plaintiff’s lawyer will take a medical malpractice case, there has to be serious injuries, injuries with special damages, medical expenses, lost wages, or something exceeding $50 thousand. In my experience, if the case does not have enough special damages, it’s just not worth it to take that particular case to a jury or even to file suit, because the doctors and the hospitals do not just turn around and settle these cases. If you’re going to proceed in a medical malpractice cases case, you have to be in for the long haul. These cases could take anywhere from two to five years to complete. And you’re right, most of them don’t end up in a trial, but they won’t settle right away. Most of them are going to end up settling at the very last minute. Abby, through a mediation process or the settlement negotiations between the attorneys. But they do not settle until all the facts are properly flushed out and everyone knows each side’s position and what the the medical testimony is going to be. And so the discovery in these cases then it sounds like takes can take years. It does take years. And it cost a whole lot of money. I’ve seen numbers anywhere from 50 to a $100 thousand just to prepare a medical malpractice case. That doesn’t necessarily include trying a medical malpractice case. Just the certificate of merit that you get in very beginning of the trial could cost you five to $10 thousand right off the top. Then you gotta prepare your experts for depositions, pay for them to come to trial if you need them actually physically in trial, and pay for deposition transcripts which are going to be voluminous and those types of cases. A lot of medical records, a lot of time spent by experts off at a chord or off a deposition, preparing and reviewing to make sure that they have fully reviewed every single document that’s involved in the case. And there could be thousands of pages of documents involved in these cases. Now, you mentioned mediation and settlement negotiation. What kinds of alternative dispute resolution do you get involved in and how would that work in a case like this? Well, if you get a medical malpractice case in, you get the information soon or not. There’s a two-year statute limitations in medical malpractice cases in Virginia. And that may be different in other states. But if you get the case at about a year out and you’ve got an E or to work with, there’s a potential that you’ll send a settlement demand to the insurance company or to the hospital or to the doctor who committed the malpractice. You can engage in settlement negotiations before you ever file suit. There are other processes like arbitration, mandatory arbitration or voluntary arbitration or mediation that you can use in Virginia. We also have medical review panels that can come into play after a suit is filed. Either party can request a medical review panel and you would essentially present your case to a tribunal of people who specialize in the type of medicine that the cases about that way you can get a more specialized opinion as to whether or not there is malpractice. So that would be a panel of of medical professionals or layers or combination a combination of both and is generally chaired by a judge who can direct the proceeding. There are some very specific things that you need to do. You can still get some discovery, but the timeline is significantly abbreviated, so you can spend about four months and a medical review panel and get a result. That’s not enough. It’s not like arbitration. You don’t get a get an award, but you get a determination on liability. So you can and is that binding on the parties then if they go through this kind of a trivial don’t know, but it can be used as evidence in the trial. Lca. So things that are presented essentially as evidence at this tribunal would then be admissible, right? In, in, in a regular trial rank. And there are some hospitals and larger medical companies now, particularly nursing homes, that are putting mandatory arbitration clauses in their intake contracts, which essentially require right off the bat that you go to arbitration instead of filing in court proceeding with litigation in the normal way. In Virginia, there is an exception to those agreements as arbitration binding arbitration agreements for medical malpractice type cases. And it gives the patient a 60 day window within which to opt out of that mandatory arbitration clause. But it has to be done within 60 days following the termination of the doctor-patient relationship. So you may not know the patient may not know that there was malpractice or that the damages that he’s currently going through, the new treatments that he’s going through was caused by malpractice. Malpractice at this point. So a lot of times you don’t see people opting out because didn’t know that they were going to need to bring a medical malpractice case? Sure. What types of if you see any DC, any church based or biblical based dispute resolution processes, have you been able to be involved in? I have recommended at one time between two parties that I knew were Christians. It did not go anywhere. The other sad thing just shocked it off and didn’t pay attention to that at all. But you don’t see it in medical malpractice and personal injury cases. And it’s interesting question to think about because they’re scriptural references to resolving disputes outside of court, if you can. And I heard an interesting debate between david gibbs and Mark hicks on the radio one time where david gibbs was very anti litigation markets was while the courts are there, it’s part of our government instituted by God to be used as a means to resolve disputes. So they’re debating its litigation good or is that litigation bad? Is it biblical or is it not? And David gives is on, it’s not side. But even he made an exception in the context of medical malpractice and personal injury because you’re really dealing with insurance companies who are calling the shots most of the time and you’re not dealing with the individual on the other side of the table. You’re dealing with the company that has agreed to indemnify him for his damages that he caused. And do you find that having the insurance companies involved like that does limit some of your options for apology or discussion or admission of some sort of liability by the time you get to the litigation stage, yes. And there are there’s a lot of Information about there out there about apologies and whether you should give apologies vs. Not give apologies. There have been studies as to the effect on malpractice cases about giving apologies. And I think the consensus is that doctors who actually give apologies, alright. Spend less time and less money litigating medical malpractice cases? Yes. Be careful when you do that, though, because some states allow that to come into evidence at the trial as an admission of guilt share some states do not. Virginia is one of those states where if you give an apology or statement of regret or anything like that, it’s not it cannot come into evidence as into evidence at trial as an admission of guilt. But there is a very fine line because if you admit in your apology that you committed malpractice than that admission will come in, but the apology, it will not come in. Interesting as evidence. It would seem like that that sort of apology, expression of regret would would foster the, the reconciliation or at least some sort of a relationship between the patient and lead and the professional. And it gives sort of closure to the patient that they’re often seeking in litigation. But if they have an explanation from the doctor and an apology, then oftentimes they have the closure that they need to just let it go. There are two camps. Some doctors and hospitals will fall into. You got deny and defend and they just won’t say anything. They won’t even really tell you what happened. And then you’ve got the apologize and disclose camp. And I’ve seen the studies that say that medical malpractice claims are settled for as much as 47% less in the apologize and disclose professionals as opposed to the dynein defend because there’s not that closure and patients like to see if they feel like they’ve been wrong, they want to obtain that closure and they want to vindicate the wrong that’s been done to them. And rightfully so. Very good. We have art. Our audience is all healthcare professionals from a, from a variety of professionals. Any last words of wisdom or advice? Well, sure. I guess I would say people are people and I understand most of the people watching this will probably be Christians. Second greatest commandment is to love thy neighbor. And that is not any less true. And your profession as it is with the person who lives across the street from you. So when when someone comes up to you needing healthcare services or any type of services, follow the second commandment, love thy neighbor as yourself. And I think everything else will take care of itself from that point. Excellent. Thank you so much for your time and thank you.Â
reply one
In the case study that we have been assigned for this week’s discussion board, there is a patient that had been admitted to the hospital for a procedure and during admittance, the patient had been identified as Mrs. Smith. Mrs. Smith has made the allegation that there was negligence that was done after the surgery was completed during the examination in the post-operation. From the account of Mrs. Smith and Mr. Smith, she was in the waiting area for the post-op when the Chief of Surgery, Dr. George Paltrow came into the recovery area to perform his evaluation of all of the patients. During the examination, there was a note that had been made that Dr. Paltrow did not change his gloves after he had completed the evaluation of each one of his patients nor did he wash his hands as required. Following the evaluation, Mrs. Smith had contracted a staph infection that caused her more illness and had prolonged her stay within the hospital to thirty days. There have been a number of witnesses who have been identified and have been interviewed. In the interviews, the determination was made that all of the parties involved had been members of the hospital staff and not private contractors which brings the case in a whole other direction.
In the case, the problem of duty of care had been called into question since the idea of duty means the establishment of a legal obligation unto which the safety and security of another is imposed. The duty of care became in effect when the patient who was Mrs. Smith was in their care and had the supervision of Dr. Paltrow including the assigned nurse during the evaluation in post-surgery. Pozgar (2019) states that an organization owes its patients a duty of care, and the duty includes the obligation to protect them from negligence and fraudulent acts of those physicians with a propensity to commit malpractice (p. 172). The physicians in a hospital has to be able to provide the highest and considerable amount of care for any patient that is under their care including seeking the expertise of medical professionals. Morris et al (2019) stated, “All healthcare practitioners know that they owe their patients a duty of care (p. 647). The duty of care had been defined already since the patient had been in the care of Dr. Paltrow and Nurse Brainard while post-op care was being provided. This is a crucial component that must be determined if the patient would even want to begin to proceed with the filing and possibly winning a lawsuit for negligence.
The first of the determination factors in the case study would be the idea of breaching of duty. Pozgar (2019) defines breach of duty as the failure to conform to or the departure from a
required duty of care owed to a person (p. 50). When Dr. Paltrow was making his assessment of the patients and made the decision to not change his glove nor wash his hands as mandated, he violated the standard of care that had been owed to his patients that deserved a quality level of care. To be able to properly determine if a breach of duty occurred, we must be able to understand the policies and procedures that the hospital has including what a reasonable care provider is expected to do. According to the case study, if there is a policy that exists for the handling of gloves, the way to change them and disposal once usage is done then that should be followed. Whilst interviewing Nurse Brainard, she mentioned the fact that many of the staff within that department did not practice the proper standards of glove changing and handwashing. The nurse also indicated that she had expected for an incident such as this to occur due to the behaviors that she had seen from the staff members. Morris et al (2019) stated, “The issue of whether a healthcare practitioner breached their duty of care to their patient is central to clinical negligence claims (p. 647). Once review of the presented facts is complete, there is a breach of duty that has obviously occurred since Dr. Paltrow did not follow the policy or procedures and did not practice safety protocols for the patients nor standards of care. Another point to remember is that the staff members were also employees of the hospital who did not take the time to inform either Dr. Paltrow nor the administration of what Dr. Paltrow was doing and allowed for a delay in the treatment and care of Mrs. Smith.
The second of the determination factors in the case study would be the injuries that had been caused or received to the patient due to the negligence. The very essence if civil liberty certainly consists in the right of every individual to claim the protection of the laws, whenever he receives an injury (Pozgar, 2019, p. 20). In many occurrences either medical or not, an injury that is one that is caused from pain, suffering, loss of income, harm physically or even to one’s reputation. Mrs. Smith was injured due to the physician’s breach of duty and duty of care being violated which resulted in a staph infection that had not been there prior to admittance into the hospital’s care. The injury had been reaffirmed when the pulmonologist, Dr. Holly Brigham and the infection disease team made the determination that Mrs. Smith received a staph infection that had traveled from her lungs which can cause an autoimmune disease. The staph infection is one that can affect her life and cause her death if untreated or treated incorrectly or even not found in time. Since the nursing staff did not take the time to advise any personnel of the actions of Dr. Paltrow, the injuries could have been left for a period of time can cause a delay in the possible treatments and the overall outcome. The malpractice frameworks are intended to provide compensation and justice for negligently injured patients (Krauss, n.d., p. 1). In the end, the actions had occurred after the surgery was done and the patient had suffered injuries due to the negligence of the hospital and this gives good credence to the lawsuit of Mrs. Smith to the staff as well as the hospital as a whole.
The element of causation requires that there be a reasonable, close, and casual connection
or relationship between the defendant’s negligent conduct and the resulting damages (Pozgar,
2019, p. 52). Mrs. Smith had not been the only patient to receive the staph infection as Nurse Brainard said, she said that all of the patients that was under the care of Dr. Paltrow had been infected and this is a result of negligence. If she were to be the only patient to have receive the infection, the case would have been more difficult to prove. Graham (2020) concludes that the search for casual connection between damage and negligent act or omission requires consideration of the events that have happened and what would have happened if there has been no negligent act or omission (p. 21). Nurse Brainard mentioned that all of the patients had acquired the same exact type of infect that Mrs. Smith did which can be determined that the doctor, the staff and the hospital had been responsible for the injury to Mrs. Smith. Due to the negligence of Dr. Paltrow of not following the proper protocol of changing his gloves between caring for his patients nor washing his hands, the patients under his care became seriously ill with an autoimmune disease. The most reasonable piece of information to note is that the other staff members such as the nurses had been completely aware of the negligence though did not take the time to notify the doctor due to either fear of reprisal or fear in general. The nurses did not take the time to even talk to an administrator and discuss the negligence that had occurred. The violations had been known while the steps had not been properly taken to ensure the safety, security and care of the patient which should have done to prevent any type of harm to the patient which violates the right of the patient to proper or quality care.
In the end, after the careful review of the case study and the listening of all of the interviews for all of the involved parties within the hospital workplace, there seems to be the possibility of danger where a lawsuit of malpractice being issued. Each one of the parties that was involved had been members of the staff which means that the hospital has liability for any kind of neglect, damages or injuries that had occurred with the patient when they were in their care. Since the individuals are not contractors privately, the hospital has to assume the responsibility for the negligence that occurred on their watch. The care of the patient that had been provided was negligent and this means that the physicians including the hospital that they are employed at as well as the other staff members are at risk of a possible malpractice lawsuit that is being filed by the patient due to the negligence all of the involved parties. According to King James Bible Online (2021), Ezra 4:22 states, “Take heed now that ye fail not to do this: why should damage grow to the hurt of the kings?†This bible verse is one that expresses that negligence can be translated to one who is a sloth, lazy, or careless. This is not the representation that God would want to have in the kingdom that he has since this is not productive and can cause harm. This can be harmful due to the carelessness and lack the patience to get things done correctly without any fault to anyone. The Chief of the hospital has to be able to have the comprehension that negligence has occurred in the incident where all parties including the hospital needs to be held accountable and liable for if the case move forward where the court needs to be ruled upo
Reply two
Setting: Hospital. Post-surgical ward. 4 patients to a room. It is stated that there is an infection control committee that does not enforce policies and procedures. The policies and procedures are known to be very vague and not well wrote. The upkeep of the hospital itself is also in need of some housekeeping attention. It needs to also be noted that the ceiling tiles have gotten wet and are starting to mold. The vents in the room also have black and green building on them as well. There is no signage posted on the walls or doors for the patients and visitors regarding hand washing. Nothing posted anywhere for staff about procedure guidelines or hand washing. There are not gloves in every room with proper disposal canisters.
Dr. George Paltrow is Chief of Surgery. He is an employee of the hospital and is not privately contracted. He is numerous years of experience under his belt. He has performed thousands of surgeries and countless procedures. He performed a surgery on Mrs. Smith. The surgery went well and he went to visit her on rounds the following day. During rounds, Dr. Paltrow himself, and his residents started their rounds in the surgery ward. This is a four bed-room of post-surgical patients. They started the rounds with an amputation that they had done on a leg that was gangrene. It was sent out to pathology and came back with staph detected as well. They looked at the incision after donning gloves, removed the dressing and placed a new one. Asked and answered questions and moved onto the next patient. They did this for all four patients that were inside of this room. Coming to Mrs. Smith as the fourth patient, with the same pair of gloves that were worn for the first patient and dressing change. Dr. Paltrow examined the site and reapplied a dressing to the area. There was a handwashing sink available at the bedside of Mrs. Smith, that was placed 3 feet away from her. Dr. Paltrow disposed of his gloves and washed his hands beside Mrs. Smith’s bed. Upon finishing rounds, Dr. Paltrow made it known that he was leaving town and would be on vacation. The next morning, Mrs. Smith developed a high grade fever, her husband was very worried about her and knew that something needed to be done. Nurses Jennifer Brainard and Kyle Jones were the only two nurses that were working the unit that day as others had called in or there were just no other staff scheduled. Neither Jennifer or Kyle called Dr. Paltrow to advise him that Mrs. Smith had developed a fever. The husband took it upon himself to call the CEO of the hospital and advise him of what was going on. The CEO then called Infectious Disease to get involved. Tests were ran, Mrs. Smith had a terrible staph infection in her lungs. Dr. Holly Bringham was the pulmonologist that was consulted on Mrs. Smith’s case. She came in and drained the pocket out of the left lung while Infectious disease started Mrs. Smith on strong iv antibiotics to get ahead of the infection. The admission to the hospital that was originally supposed to be 5 days, turned into a 30 day stay. Dr. Bringham stated that it was unknown if the pocket would fill up again or if the staph infection were the cause of Mrs. Smith’s now current illness and diagnosis’. A lawsuit was filed against the hospital and Dr. Paltrow.
An investigation was started and employees were interviewed about the happenings.
Jennifer Brainard RN: Dr. Paltrow did not change gloves between patients. He was observed doing dressing changes with the same gloves on as well. “People make mistakes.†Stated that Dr. Paltrow normally goes from the book and is very careful he was just preoccupied with his vacation plans. It was confirmed through her that all patients in that ward did in fact contract staph infections as well. She stated that they did not say anything to Dr. Paltrow at the time for fear of being fired or yelled at in front of patients. It was also stated that was the same reason that they did not call Dr. Paltrow on to inform him of the change in Mrs. Smith’s health status. Was Dr. Paltrow incompetent for not performing proper hand hygiene?
Chief of Surgery George Paltrow: Did not have much to say about Mrs. Smith’s case. “It was a while ago. I have seen a lot of patients since then.†The first interview did not go well as Dr. Paltrow was very short with his answers. He was interrupted with an “emergency†patient. The second interview when approached about infection control. Dr. Paltrow discussed lots of ideas about proper hand hygiene and cross contamination procedures. He was more open with these questions but again, when asked about Mrs. Smith, he had not definitive answers and stated the staph infection probably came from the moldy vents and ceiling tiles.
Dr. Holly Bringham Pulmonology: Everyone makes mistakes sometimes we are all human was her first response. However, she felt it was ridiculous that it would be thought that staph was airborne. The infection entered the blood stream and flowed throughout the blood contaminating the entire body and finally the lungs. “Most staph infections are spread by direct person-to-person contact, usually requiring some break in the skin or mucous membranes to allow transfer of the bacteria†(Haaber, 2017). She felt the reaction time by the nurses was very late but that the treatment after the doctors got consulted went very well and the antibiotics got started quickly.
Duty to care: “In tort law, a duty of care is a legal obligation which is imposed on an individual, requiring adherence to a standard of reasonable care while performing any acts that could foreseeably harm others†(Wikipedia, 2021). As nurses and doctors there is an oath that is taken and sworn to do no harm. This duty to care was established with Dr. George Paltrow and Mr. and Mrs. Smith when the initial surgery consult came into the office. This is also known as the physician/patient relationship. Dr. Paltrow continued this duty to care throughout the care of Mrs. Smith. There is also a duty to care that was established between Jennifer Brainard and Kyle Jones whom where the nurses that were on duty taking care of Mrs. Smith post-surgery.
Breach of duty: “A duty of care is breached when someone is injured because of the action (or in some cases, the lack of action) of another person when it was reasonably foreseeable that the action could cause injury, and a reasonable person in the same position would not have acted that way†(Pandit, 2009). This was broken by Dr. Paltrow when he performed rounds and did not change gloves between patients and this also occurred by the nurses when they did not call Dr. Paltrow to inform him of the status change.
The injury was done to Mrs. Smith and she became very ill. Ill enough that the nurse thought it would benefit a priest visitation. I do not feel that the hospital is at fault for this. They do need to look at their infection control committee and program and reconstruct that very thoroughly. I feel that Dr. Paltrow is at fault for negligence in this case. Foreseeability: “ The ability to reasonably anticipate the potential results of an action, such as the damage or injury that may happen if one is negligent or breaches a contractâ€(Foreseeability, 2021). He performed examinations and dressing changes on four different patients with the same gloves. Never changing or washing his hands in between contact. In his interview he stated that no hand washing was a true way for cross contamination. I feel the nurse should also get written up for the actions as well for not notifying the doctor in diligent timing endangering the life of their patient.
solved Case Study 10.6NATIONAL COLLEGIATE ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION V. BOARD OF REGENTS
/in /by adminCase Study 10.6NATIONAL COLLEGIATE ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION V. BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA468 U.S. 85 (1984)The University of Oklahoma and the University of Georgia contend that the National Collegiate Athletic Association has unreasonably restrained trade in the televising of college football games. After an extended trial, the district court found that the NCAA had violated § 1 of the Sherman Act and granted injunctive relief. The court of appeals agreed that the statute had been violated but modified the remedy in some respects. We granted certiorari and now affirm.Since its inception in 1905, the NCAA has played an important role in the regulation of amateur collegiate sports. It has adopted and promulgated playing rules, standards of amateurism, standards for academic eligibility, regulations concerning recruitment of athletes, rules governing the size of athletic squads and coaching staffs, and conducted national tournaments in some sports. With the exception of football, the NCAA has not undertaken any regulation of the televising of athletic events.The NCAA has approximately 850 voting members. The regular members are classified into separate divisions to reflect differences in size and scope of their athletic programs. Division I includes 276 colleges with major athletic programs; in this group only 187 play intercollegiate football. Divisions II and III include approximately 500 colleges with less extensive athletic programs. Division I has been subdivided into Divisions I-A and I-AA for football.Some years ago, five major conferences together with major football-playing independent institutions organized the College Football Association (CFA). The original purpose of the CFA was to promote the interests of major football-playing schools within the NCAA structure. The Universities of Oklahoma and Georgia, respondents in this court, are members of the CFA.On January 11, 1951, a three-person “Television Committee,†appointed during the preceding year, delivered a report to the NCAA’s annual convention in Dallas. Based on their report and additional input from the National Opinion Research Center (NORC), a television committee was appointed to develop an NCAA television plan for 1951.The committee’s 1951 plan provided that only one game a week could be telecast in each area, with a total blackout on three of the 10 Saturdays during the season. A team could appear on television only twice during a season. The plan received the virtually unanimous support of the NCAA membership.During each of the succeeding five seasons, studies were made that tended to indicate that television had an adverse effect on attendance at college football games. During those years the NCAA continued to exercise complete control over the number of games that could be televised.From 1952 through 1977, the NCAA television committee followed essentially the same procedure for developing its television plans. It would first circulate a questionnaire to the membership and then use the responses as a basis for formulating a plan for the ensuing season. Once approved, the plan formed the basis for NCAA’s negotiations with the networks. Throughout this period the plans retained the essential purposes of the original plan. Until 1977 the contracts were all for either 1- or 2-year terms. In 1977, the NCAA adopted principles of negotiation for the future and discontinued the practice of submitting each plan for membership approval. Then the NCAA also entered into its first 4-year contract granting exclusive rights to the American Broadcasting Co. (ABC) for the 1978-1981 seasons. ABC had held the exclusive rights to network telecasts of NCAA football games since 1965.The plan adopted in 1981 for the 1982-85 seasons is at issue in this case. This plan, like each of its predecessors, recites that it is intended to reduce, insofar as possible, the adverse effects of live television on football game attendance. It provides that all forms of television of the football games of NCAA member institutions during the plan control periods shall be in accordance with this plan. The plan recites that the television committee has awarded rights to negotiate and contract for the telecasting of college football games of members of the NCAA to two carrying networks. In addition to the principal award of rights to the carrying networks, the plan also describes rights for a supplementary series that had been awarded for the 1982 and 1983 seasons, as well as a procedure for permitting specific exception telecasts.In separate agreements with each of the carrying networks, ABC and the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), the NCAA granted each the right to telecast the 14 live exposures described in the plan, in accordance with the ground rules set forth therein. Each of the networks agreed to pay a specified minimum aggregate compensation to the participating NCAA member institutions during the 4-year period in an amount that totaled $131,750,000. In essence the agreement authorized each network to negotiate directly with member schools for the right to televise their games. The agreement itself does not describe the method of computing the compensation for each game, but the practice that has developed over the years and that the district court found would be followed under the current agreement involved the setting of a recommended fee by a representative of the NCAA for different types of telecasts, with national telecasts being the most valuable, regional telecasts being less valuable, and Division II or Division III games commanding a still lower price. The aggregate of all these payments presumably equals the total minimum aggregate compensation set forth in the basic agreement. Except for differences in payment between national and regional telecasts, and with respect to Division II and Division III games, the amount that any team receives does not change with the size of the viewing audience, the number of markets in which the game is telecast, or the particular characteristic of the game or the participating teams. Instead, the ground rules provide that the carrying networks make alternate selections of those games they wish to televise, and thereby obtain the exclusive right to submit a bid at an essentially fixed price to the institutions involved.The plan also contains appearance requirements and appearance limitations that pertain to each of the 2-year periods that the plan is in effect. The basic requirement imposed on each of the two networks is that it must schedule appearances for at least 82 different member institutions during each 2-year period. Under the appearance limitations no member institution is eligible to appear on television more than a total of six times and more than four times nationally, with the appearances to be divided equally between the two carrying networks. The number of exposures specified in the contracts also sets an absolute maximum on the number of games that can be broadcast.Thus, although the current plan is more elaborate than any of its predecessors, it retains the essential features of each of them. It limits the total amount of televised intercollegiate football and the number of games that any one team may televise. No member is permitted to make any sale of television rights except in accordance with the basic plan.Beginning in 1979, CFA members began to advocate that colleges with major football programs should have a greater voice in the formulation of football television policy than they had in the NCAA. CFA therefore investigated the possibility of negotiating a television agreement of its own, developed an independent plan, and obtained a contract offer from the National Broadcasting Co. (NBC). This contract, which it signed in August 1981, would have allowed a more liberal number of appearances for each institution and would have increased the overall revenues realized by CFA members.In response, the NCAA publicly announced that it would take disciplinary action against any CFA member that complied with the CFA-NBC contract. The NCAA made it clear that sanctions would not be limited to the football programs of CFA members, but would apply to other sports as well. On September 8, 1981, respondents commenced this action in the United States District Court for the Western District of Oklahoma and obtained a preliminary injunction preventing the NCAA from initiating disciplinary proceedings or otherwise interfering with CFA’s efforts to perform its agreement with NBC.There can be no doubt that the challenged practices of the NCAA constitute “a restraint of trade†in the sense that they limit members’ freedom to negotiate and enter into their own television contracts. In that sense, however, every contract is a restraint of trade, and as we have repeatedly recognized, the Sherman Act was intended to prohibit only unreasonable restraints of trade. It is also undeniable that these practices share characteristics of restraints we have previously held unreasonable. The NCAA is an association of schools that compete against each other to attract television revenues, not to mention fans and athletes. As the district court found, the policies of the NCAA with respect to television rights are ultimately controlled by the vote of member institutions. By participating in an association that prevents member institutions from competing against each other on the basis of price or kind of television rights that can be offered to broadcasters, the NCAA member institutions have created a horizontal restraint—an agreement among competitors on the way in which they will compete with one another. A restraint of this type has often been held to be unreasonable as a matter of law. Because it places a ceiling on the number of games member institutions may televise, the horizontal agreement places an artificial limit on the quantity of televised football that is available to broadcasters and consumers. By restraining the quantity of television rights available for sale, the challenged practices create a limitation on output; our cases have held that such limitations are unreasonable restraints of trade. Moreover, the district court found that the minimum aggregate price in fact operates to preclude any price negotiation between broadcasters and institutions, thereby constituting horizontal price fixing, perhaps the paradigm of an unreasonable restraint of trade.Horizontal price fixing and output limitation are ordinarily condemned as a matter of law under an “illegal per se†approach because the probability that these practices are anticompetitive is so high; a per se rule is applied “when the practice facially appears to be one that would always or almost always tend to restrict competition and decrease output.†Broadcast Music, Inc. v. Columbia Broadcasting Sys., Inc., 441 U.S. 1, 19-20 (1979). In such circumstances a restraint is presumed unreasonable without inquiry into the particular market context in which it is found. Nevertheless, we have decided that it would be inappropriate to apply a per se rule to this case. This decision is not based on a lack of judicial experience with this type of arrangement, on the fact that the NCAA is organized as a nonprofit entity, or on our respect for the NCAA’s historic role in the preservation and encouragement of intercollegiate amateur athletics. Rather, what is critical is that this case involves an industry in which horizontal restraints on competition are essential if the product is to be available at all.What the NCAA and its member institutions market in this case is competition itself—contests between competing institutions. Of course, this would be completely ineffective if there were no rules on which the competitors agreed to create and define the competition to be marketed. A myriad of rules affecting such matters as the size of the field, the number of players on a team, and the extent to which physical violence is to be encouraged or proscribed, all must be agreed upon, and all restrain the manner in which institutions compete. Moreover, the NCAA seeks to market a particular brand of football—college football. The identification of this product with an academic tradition differentiates college football from and makes it more popular than professional sports to which it might otherwise be comparable, such as, for example, minor league baseball. In order to preserve the character and quality of the product, athletes must not be paid, must be required to attend class, and the like. And the integrity of the product cannot be preserved except by mutual agreement; if an institution adopted such restrictions unilaterally, its effectiveness as a competitor on the playing field might soon be destroyed. Thus, the NCAA plays a vital role in enabling college football to preserve its character, and as a result enables a product to be marketed that might otherwise be unavailable. In performing this role, its actions widen consumer choice—not only the choices available to sports fans but also those available to athletes—and hence can be viewed as procompetitive.Respondents concede that the great majority of the NCAA regulations enhance competition among member institutions. Thus, despite the fact that this case involves restraints on the ability of member institutions to compete in terms of price and output, a fair evaluation of their competitive character requires consideration of the NCAA’s justifications for the restraints.Our analysis of this case under the rule of reason, of course, does not change the ultimate focus of our inquiry. Both per se rules and the rule of reason are employed to form a judgment about the competitive significance of the restraint. A conclusion that a restraint of trade is unreasonable may be based either (1) on the nature or character of the contracts, or (2) on surrounding circumstances giving rise to the inference or presumption that they were intended to restrain trade and enhance prices. Under either branch of the test, the inquiry is confined to a consideration of impact on competitive conditions.Per se rules are invoked when surrounding circumstances make the likelihood of anticompetitive conduct so great as to render unjustified further examination of the challenged conduct. But whether the ultimate finding is the product of a presumption or actual market analysis, the essential inquiry remains the same—whether or not the challenged restraint enhances competition. Under the Sherman Act the criterion to be used in judging the validity of a restraint on trade is its impact on competition.Because it restrains price and output, the NCAA television plan has a significant potential for anticompetitive effects. The findings of the district court indicate that this potential has been realized. The district court found that if member institutions were free to sell television rights, many more games would be shown on television, and that the NCAA’s output restriction has the effect of raising the price the networks pay for television rights. Moreover, the court found that by fixing a price for television rights to all games, the NCAA creates a price structure that is unresponsive to viewer demand and unrelated to the prices that would prevail in a competitive market. And, of course, since as a practical matter all member institutions need NCAA approval, members have no real choice but to adhere to the NCAA’s television controls.The anticompetitive consequences of this arrangement are apparent. Individual competitors lose their freedom to compete. Price is higher and output lower than they would otherwise be, and both are unresponsive to consumer preference. This latter point is perhaps the most significant, since Congress designed the Sherman Act as a consumer welfare prescription. A restraint that has the effect of reducing the importance of consumer preference in setting price and output is not consistent with this fundamental goal of antitrust law. Restrictions on price and output are the paradigmatic examples of restraints of trade that the Sherman Act was intended to prohibit. At the same time, the television plan eliminates competitors from the market, since only those broadcasters able to bid on television rights covering the entire NCAA can compete. Thus, as the district court found, many telecasts that would occur in a competitive market are foreclosed by the NCAA plan.Petitioner argues, however, that its television plan can have no significant anticompetitive effect since the record indicates that it has no market power—no ability to alter the interaction of supply and demand in the market. We must reject this argument for two reasons, one legal, one factual.As a matter of law, the absence of proof of market power does not justify a naked restriction on price or output. To the contrary, when there is an agreement not to compete in terms of price or output, no elaborate industry analysis is required to demonstrate the anticompetitive character of such an agreement. Petitioner does not quarrel with the district court’s finding that price and output are not responsive to demand. Thus the plan is inconsistent with the Sherman Act’s command that price and supply be responsive to consumer preference. We have never required proof of market power in such a case. This naked restraint on price and output requires some competitive justification even in the absence of a detailed market analysis.As a factual matter, it is evident that petitioner does possess market power. The district court employed the correct test for determining whether college football broadcasts constitute a separate market—whether there are other products that are reasonably substitutable for televised NCAA football games. Petitioner’s argument that it cannot obtain supracompetitive prices from broadcasters since advertisers, and hence broadcasters, can switch from college football to other types of programming simply ignores the findings of the district court. It found that intercollegiate football telecasts generate an audience uniquely attractive to advertisers and that competitors are unable to offer programming that can attract a similar audience. These findings amply support its conclusion that the NCAA possesses market power. Indeed, the district court’s subsidiary finding that advertisers will pay a premium price per viewer to reach audiences watching college football because of their demographic characteristics is vivid evidence of the uniqueness of this product. Thus, respondents have demonstrated that there is a separate market for telecasts of college football that rests on generic qualities differentiating viewers. It inexorably follows that if college football broadcasts be defined as a separate market—and we are convinced they are—then the NCAA’s complete control over those broadcasts provides a solid basis for the district court’s conclusion that the NCAA possesses market power with respect to those broadcasts. When a product is controlled by one interest, without substitutes available in the market, there is monopoly power.Thus, the NCAA television plan on its face constitutes a restraint on the operation of a free market, and the findings of the district court establish that it has operated to raise prices and reduce output. Under the rule of reason, these hallmarks of anticompetitive behavior place on petitioner a heavy burden of establishing an affirmative defense that competitively justifies this apparent deviation from the operations of a free market. We turn now to the NCAA’s proffered justifications.Petitioner argues that its television plan constitutes a cooperative joint venture that assists in the marketing of broadcast rights and hence is procompetitive. While joint ventures have no immunity from the antitrust laws, a joint selling arrangement may make possible a new product by reaping otherwise unattainable efficiencies. The essential contribution made by the NCAA’s arrangement is to define the number of games that may be televised, to establish the price for each exposure, and to define the basic terms of each contract between the network and a home team. The NCAA does not, however, act as a selling agent for any school or for any conference of schools. The selection of individual games and the negotiation of particular agreements are matters left to the networks and the individual schools. Thus, the effect of the network plan is not to eliminate individual sales of broadcasts, since these still occur, albeit subject to fixed prices and output limitations. Here the same rights are still sold on an individual basis, only in a noncompetitive market.The district court did not find that the NCAA television plan produced any procompetitive efficiencies that enhanced the competitiveness of college football television rights; to the contrary, it concluded that NCAA football could be marketed just as effectively without the television plan. There is therefore no predicate in the findings for petitioner’s efficiency justification. Indeed, petitioner’s argument is refuted by the district court’s finding concerning price and output. If the NCAA television plan produced procompetitive efficiencies, the plan would increase output and reduce the price of televised games. The district court’s contrary findings accordingly undermine petitioner’s position. In light of these findings, it cannot be said that the agreement on price is necessary to market the product at all. Here production has been limited, not enhanced. No individual school is free to televise its own games without restraint. The NCAA’s efficiency justification is not supported by the record.Neither is the NCAA television plan necessary to enable the NCAA to penetrate the market through an attractive package sale. Since broadcasting rights to college football constitute a unique product for which there is no ready substitute, there is no need for collective action in order to enable the product to compete against its nonexistent competitors. This is borne out by the district court’s finding that the NCAA television plan reduces the volume of television rights sold.Throughout the history of its regulation of intercollegiate football telecasts, the NCAA has indicated its concern with protecting live attendance. This concern, it should be noted, is not with protecting live attendance at games that are shown on television; that type of interest is not at issue in this case. Rather, the concern is that fan interest in a televised game may adversely affect ticket sales for games that will not appear on television.Although the NORC studies in the 1950s provided some support for the thesis that live attendance would suffer if unlimited television were permitted, the district court found that there was no evidence to support that theory in today’s market. Moreover, as the district court found, the television plan has evolved in a manner inconsistent with its original design to protect gate attendance. Under the current plan, games are shown on television during all hours that college football games are played. The plan simply does not protect live attendance by ensuring that games will not be shown on television at the same time as live events.There is, however, a more fundamental reason for rejecting this defense. The NCAA’s argument that its television plan is necessary to protect live attendance is not based on a desire to maintain the integrity of college football as a distinct and attractive product, but rather on a fear that the product will not prove sufficiently attractive to draw live attendance when faced with competition from televised games. At bottom, the NCAA’s position is that ticket sales for most college games are unable to compete in a free market. The television plan protects ticket sales by limiting output—just as any monopolist increases revenues by reducing output. By seeking to insulate live ticket sales from the full spectrum of competition because of its assumption that the product itself is insufficiently attractive to consumers, petitioner forwards a justification that is inconsistent with the basic policy of the Sherman Act. The rule of reason does not support a defense based on the assumption that competition itself is unreasonable.Petitioner argues that the interest in maintaining a competitive balance among amateur athletic teams is legitimate and important and that it justifies the regulations challenged in this case. We agree with the first part of the argument but not the second.Our decision not to apply a per se rule to this case rests in large part on our recognition that a certain degree of cooperation is necessary if the type of competition that petitioner and its member institutions seek to market is to be preserved. It is reasonable to assume that most of the regulatory controls of the NCAA are justifiable means of fostering competition among amateur athletic teams and therefore procompetitive because they enhance public interest in intercollegiate athletics. The specific restraints on football telecasts that are challenged in this case do not, however, fit into the same mold as do rules defining the conditions of the contest, the eligibility of participants, or the manner in which members of a joint enterprise shall share the responsibilities and the benefits of the total venture.The NCAA does not claim that its television plan has equalized or is intended to equalize competition within any one league. The plan is nationwide in scope and there is no single league or tournament in which all college football teams compete. There is no evidence of any intent to equalize the strength of teams in Division I-A with those in Division II or Division III, and not even a colorable basis for giving colleges that have no football program at all a voice in the management of the revenues generated by the football programs at other schools. The interest in maintaining a competitive balance that is asserted by the NCAA as a justification for regulating all television of intercollegiate football is not related to any neutral standard or to any readily identifiable group of competitors.The television plan is not even arguably tailored to serve such an interest. It does not regulate the amount of money that any college may spend on its football program, nor the way in which the colleges may use the revenues that are generated by their football programs, whether derived from the sale of television rights, the sale of tickets, or the sale of concessions or program advertising. The plan simply imposes a restriction on one source of revenue that is more important to some colleges than to others. There is no evidence that this restriction produces any greater measure of equality throughout the NCAA than would a restriction on alumni donations, tuition rates, or any other revenue-producing activity. At the same time, as the district court found, the NCAA imposes a variety of other restrictions designed to preserve amateurism that are much better tailored to the goal of competitive balance than is the television plan, and that are clearly sufficient to preserve competitive balance to the extent it is within the NCAA’s power to do so. And much more than speculation supported the district court’s findings on this score. No other NCAA sport employs a similar plan, and in particular the court found that in the most closely analogous sport, college basketball, competitive balance has been maintained without resort to a restrictive television plan.Perhaps the most important reason for rejecting the argument that the interest in competitive balance is served by the television plan is the district court’s unambiguous and well-supported finding that many more games would be televised in a free market than under the NCAA plan. The hypothesis that legitimates the maintenance of competitive balance as a procompetitive justification under the rule of reason is that equal competition will maximize consumer demand for the product. The finding that consumption will materially increase if the controls are removed is a compelling demonstration that they do not in fact serve any such legitimate purpose.The NCAA plays a critical role in the maintenance of a revered tradition of amateurism in college sports. There can be no question but that it needs ample latitude to play that role, or that the preservation of the student athlete in higher education adds richness and diversity to intercollegiate athletics and is entirely consistent with the goals of the Sherman Act. But consistent with the Sherman Act, the role of the NCAA must be to preserve a tradition that might otherwise die; rules that restrict output are hardly consistent with this role. Today we hold only that the record supports the district court’s conclusion that by curtailing output and blunting the ability of member institutions to respond to consumer preference, the NCAA has restricted rather than enhanced the place of intercollegiate athletics in the nation’s life.Accordingly, the judgment of the court of appeals is affirmed.Case Study 10.6 Review QuestionsNational Collegiate Athletic Association v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma1. State the names of the plaintiff and defendant, the volume number, page number and name of the reporter, and the court that decided the case.2. Describe the facts of the case.3. What was the cause of action?4. What was the court’s disposition of the case?5. Under what approach are horizontal price fixing and output limitation condemned?6. What rule is applied when competition is restricted and output is decreased?7. Under what two tests was it conclusory that a restraint of trade was unreasonable?8. When are per se rules invoked? Explain.9. As a matter of law, does the absence of proof of market power justify a restriction on price or output?
solved GoalOpinion/AssertionPostRead the criticism in this module [below], entitled, “Astronomy, Alc
/in /by adminGoalOpinion/AssertionPostRead the criticism in this module [below], entitled, “Astronomy, Alchemy, and Archetypes” and share your ideas about the criticism in a discussion post (you MUST quote the passage). The post is meant to be a response specifically to THIS CRITICISM. So write at least three full paragraphs [or more if you wish] on this criticism [in relation to the play] for the full 20 points.GradingClick on the rubric to see how the discussion will be graded.Astronomy, Alchemy, and Archetypes: An Integrated View of Shakespeare’sA Midsummer Night’s Dreamby Katherine Bartol PerraultChapter 3: The Mythology Of The Play: Archetypes RevealedMyth: The Fundamental Essence of the ArchetypeC. Kerenyi, in his “Prolegomena” to Essays on a Science of Mythology: The Myth of the Divine Child and The Mysteries of Eleusis asks the question “What is mythology?” (Jung & Kerenyi, 2). The word myth means, “to put together,” Kerenyi states, and is “the movement of [. . .] tales already well known but not unamenable to further reshaping [. . .] something solid, and yet mobile, substantial and yet not static, capable of transformation” (2). The images of myth are not merely linguistic, but primarily pictorial, stemming from man’s unconscious. Both Jung and Kerenyi assert that myths are primordial images of primitive human phenomena, revealing the nature of man’s soul. They arise through the poetry of mythology, and do not only possess meaning but also assign meaning through the function of an archetype, which is a “‘representation of a motif’ [that] ‘constellates’ a dream or mythical symbol” (Doty 151). Most myths contain recurring archetypes of gods, supernatural beings who represent projections of psychic phenomena, and primordial time—eternal time in which the archetypal image transcends time as well as place.We have seen through the astronomy of Midsummer and its numeric configurations how the play is intrinsically unified through a complex symbol system whose myths manifest archetypes. Jung states that “All the mythologized processes of nature, such as summer and winter, the phases of the moon, the rainy seasons, and so forth, are in no sense allegories of these objective occurrences; rather they are symbolic expressions of the inner, unconscious drama of the psyche” (Archetypes 6). We have seen how the natural processes of astronomy, the progression of time, and the seasons are an elemental part of the structure of Midsummer. As expressions of the unconscious, these natural archetypes are numinous, and mystical, and should be regarded symbolically, inherent with multiple meanings, rather than literally.Archetypes revealed in the artist’s poetry give us insight into the psychology of the human condition. While archetypes appear in a given individual or community, in a given culture, at a given moment in time, they also transcend that particular time or culture by virtue of their trans-historical resonance as symbol within the psyche. The significance in analyzing the mythic images or archetypes in poetic literature is expressed by James P. Driscoll in Identity in Shakespearean Drama, as he comments on Jung’s conceptions about how archetypes motivate the artist/poet to shape characters. He states:The essential artist, [Jung] insists, is an unwitting mouthpiece for the psychic secrets of his time, and often remains as unconscious as a sleepwalker. Since he lives closer to both the archetypal realm and the zeitgeist than do ordinary men who, circumscribed by their social functions, are confined to life’s surface, the artist can directly apprehend the true nature of the cultural and psychic forces he encounters and translate his vision into art form. Thus the poetical character makes archetypal visions accessible to all men. [. . .] Because the artist can speak the language of dreams directly through image and symbol, he enjoys a peculiar power to create myths and identities that possess an archetypal import and fascination that philosophical reasoning cannot equal.(10, 11)Archetypes, often described as universals, bridge time and culture as they continually resurface in the collective unconscious, which, according to Jung,has contents and modes of behavior that are more or less the same everywhere and in all individuals. It is, in other words, identical in all men, and thus constitutes a common psychic substrate of a supra-personal nature which is present in every one of us. (Archetypes 4)Through the collective unconscious, “the repository of man’s experience” (Analytical Psychology, 93), the archetypes constellate similar meanings for everyone. Harold Bloom asserts that Shakespeare’s “universal canon” transcends time and cultures in just this way, showing Elizabethans as well as postmodernists what it means to be human (Human, Bloom 17). Sitansu Maitra contends that through the analysis of archetypes as symbol in poetry, Jung has provided a way for us to understand Shakespeare’s creative genius beyond “the [Freudian] sterility of personal complexes of the creative artist into the wide open of the collective unconscious where the human race meets” (64, 73).From Jung’s perspective, contrary to general post-modern thought, the artist is connected by her/his very nature to the psychic pulse of humanity, and functions as mythmaker and storyteller within a culture through her/his work. Through the collective unconscious, the artist is able to access common ideas and icons—what Shakespeare might refer to as the “airy nothing[s]” (V.i.16)of imagination, and gives them a “local habitation and a name” (V.i.17) in the form of the artwork.For Jung, the visionary poet is amythological ‘fundamentalist’ who, by immersion in the self, dives down to his own foundations, founds his world. He builds it up for himself on a foundation where everything is an out-flowing, a sprouting and springing up—’original’ in the fullest sense of the word [“origin” comes from the Latin, origi, “to rise”], and consequently divine. (Kerenyi, Mythology 9)In Midsummer, Shakespeare’s blending of pagan mythos and Christian rites formulates an original tale or myth that is circumscribed in the marriage ritual. According to Kerenyi, “Ceremonial is the translation of a mythological value into an act” (10). The mythological drama, as such, constitutes a symbolic journey from psychic origins to wholeness via ritual, mediated through the symbolic functioning of the archetypes.When mythic archetypes appear in a ritual application (as in the rites of passage in Midsummer), they function to compensate for “deficient and distorted conscious attitudes in the traditions and dogmas that compose a ‘cultural canon,'[heralding] momentous shifts in [the] culture’s consciousness” (Lewisberg 11). The work of the archetypes in this way results in some form of cultural transformation. For example, Keith Sagar asserts in “A Midsummer Night’s Dream: A Marriage of Heaven and Hell,” that Midsummer constituted Shakespeare’s attack on the Puritans’ anathema to the “wholeness of nature” (42), which signaled the dis-integration of the Neo-Platonic, Ptolemaic worldview. As such, Sagar contends that Shakespeare appropriates archetypes that perform sacred functions, restoring harmony, not necessarily according to religious law, but according to natural law.The compensatory function of the Midsummer’s mythic archetypes in this instance results in the alchemical reconciliation of opposites (the coniunctio), in which what is considered base in nature and human relations is transformed through the restoration of nature to an equitable balance. This occurs not in spite of the oppositions present in the play, but because of them. In accord with McAlindon’s ideas concerning “the discordant concord of a natural order whose governing forces are Love and Strife, Mars and Venus” (10), Jung states, “Submission to the fundamental contrariety of human nature amounts to an acceptance of the fact that the psyche is at cross purposes with itself” (Transference 143). The paradox of discordant concord is also seen at work in the archetypal symbolism of alchemy. The opus of esoteric alchemy is not only derived from nature, but is also a work of nature. Through symbol, the opus magnum embodies the essence of reconnecting one’s psyche with the world, and ultimately, with the birth of the self, “the container and organizer of all opposites” (Jung, Transference 157).Jung contends that the alchemical image of the coniunctio is archetypal, an “a priori image that occupies a prominent place in the history of man’s mental development,” and has its sources in both pagan and Christian alchemy (Transference 5).An examination of the mythological archetypes of Midsummer will reveal Shakespeare’s poetic use of medieval alchemy. This examination will also unveil alchemy’s bridge to the present day through Jung’s appropriation of alchemical archetypes in the analysis of the personality, in which “we are confronted withpre-conscious processes which, in the form of more or less well-formed fantasies, gradually pass over into the conscious mind, or become conscious as dreams, or, lastly, are made conscious through the method of active imagination” (Jung & Kerenyi, Mythology 78).The Archetypal Mythology of the PlayThe setting of Midsummer is in itself mythic: in legendary Athens, Greece. Yet, because the play’s archetypes display typologically cultural themes, theoretically Athens itself could be any city, and the wood could be any wood. Through a mythological reading of Midsummer, we establish a formal unity of time, place, and action; time which could be ‘dream time’—or no time, a place which could be anyplace, and action—which functions transformatively, as primordial time, in relationship to the play’s archetypes.Some of the primary archetypes in Midsummer are revealed in the elemental dualisms of the play, seen in the following pairings:MasculineFeminineTheseusHippolytaOberonTitaniaDayNightSunMoonConsciousUnconsciousAnimusAnimaReasonImaginationDryMoistHeavenEarthAboveBelowLightDarknessCityWoodsOrderChaos/madnessAccording to Peter Dronke, because Shakespeare, like the medieval poets, saw the world as an integrated whole, he could metaphorically make such “hidden comparisons (collationes occultae), [and] like the prophet, realise something that was ‘both within and without'”(x). If we view the Athenian court as a symbol of reason and consciousness, and the fairy wood as a representative of imagination and the unconscious, we see a paradigm of the archetypal structure of the psyche begin to appear: the animus (the masculine principle: Theseus-Oberon) and anima (the feminine principle: Hippolyta-Titania) in opposition; and the unconscious (the chaos of the wood/the fairies) rupturing through to consciousness (the Athenian court:the royals), signaling the dis-integration of the personality (the world of the play).Sagar contends that Shakespeare’s fairies were not to be construed literally, but figuratively, as portents of inner psychic darkness (37). Yet, in Shakespeare’s day, fairy lore was very popular, and many came to see Midsummer just for the fairies (Losey 197). In 17th and 18th Century reconstructions of the play, it was even called The Fairies (Rolfe 14). The Elizabethan fairies are obviously mythological characters, yet Shakespeare cross-fertilized them with the legends of ancient Greece, in the story of Theseus and Hippolyta. When the play was performed in Elizabethan times, however, the ancient Greek court took on the trappings of the Elizabethan court, so the use of popular fairies made sense, and most likely made them more accessible to Shakespeare’s audience.As functioning archetypes, however, Shakespeare’s fairies may be read as equivalents of the Olympian figures and gods. As one of the sources of Shakespeare’s inspiration for his fairy play, McAlindon cites Chaucer’s appropriation of the Mars-Venus medieval myth, rooted in antiquity, and equates Shakespeare’s fairies to “Chaucer’s planetary gods” (50). While Oberon, Titania, and Puck may be equated with the gods of Olympus, the fairies themselves can be seen as nymphs, dryads, and satyrs. Upon viewing the characters within the same mythological sphere, archetypes are made manifest, and their relationships become clearer.Shakespeare appropriates the Greek rulers, Theseus and Hippolyta, from the Greek legends via Chaucer’s Knight’s Tale. In the majority of the productions of Midsummer, the characters of Theseus/Oberon, and Titania/Hippolyta (as well as many of the minor characters) have been double-cast, meaning that one person played both roles. Psychologically, this practice offers the thought that Theseus/Oberon and Titania/Hippolyta are different sides of the same coin. In their first encounter in the play, this may be seen as Titania accuses Oberon of being Hippolyta’s lover, and Oberon accuses Titania of loving Theseus, immediately fostering a connection between the fairy King and Queen with the Athenian royals:Titania: Why art thou here,Come from the farthest step of IndiaBut that, forsooth, the bouncing Amazon,Your buskin’d mistress and your warrior love,To Theseus must be wedded, and you comeTo give their bed joy and prosperity?Oberon: How canst thou thus, for shame, Titania,Glance at my credit with Hippolyta,Knowing I know thy love to Theseus?(II.i.68-76; emphasis added)Shakespeare’s play structurally facilitates double casting, which also seems to suggest dual aspects of each character.Theseus/Ophiuchus: Oberon/PoseidonIn Midsummer, Theseus is a lighthearted skeptic, who has put aside his warrior’s sword to woo Hippolyta, and who operates best by the light and reason of day. In legendary Greece, Theseus was a hero of Athens prior to the Trojan War. Theseus’s father, Aegeus, was childless, and he consulted the oracle at Delphi who advised him to keep his “wine skin sealed until he reached Athens” lest he die of grief there (Stapleton, 12). However, on his return to Athens, Aegeus visited his friend King Pittheus. Aegeus revealed to Pittheus the oracle’s message. Pittheus, knowing that a son of Aegeus would be great, got Aegeus drunk and had his daughter Aethra share her bed with him. Aethra consequently became pregnant with Theseus. Aegeus left Aethra in Troezen and told her to raise the child quietly, with Pittheus as his guardian. Theseus, however, was told that Poseidon was his father, and he named Poseidon as his protector. Theseus was known as a strong and accomplished wrestler, and also as the killer of the Minotaur and conqueror of its labyrinth. Theseus eventually returned to Athens to claim his birthright, and after many other adventures, became King of Athens. In due time, he conquered the Amazons who attacked Athens, taking their queen, Hippolyta (one of his many legendary female conquests), as his wife.Figure 3.1: The masculine plane~mythic constellations. © 1988, Stephen Marchesi, Random House.Figure 3.2: Constellation, Ophiuchus the Serpent Bearer (emphasis added). © 1999, Astronomy.In relationship to the masculine plane in the play’s star chart (Figures 2.20, 3.1-2), Theseus as a wrestler may be connected with Ophiuchus, the Serpent Bearer, who appears to be constraining the serpent. While Ophiuchus is not one of the twelve zodiacal signs, he nevertheless was quite significant in Shakespeare’s metaphoric view of the cosmos. Ophiuchus lies along the ecliptic, or the path of the sun. In medieval astronomy, while Ophiuchus was not regarded as a proper zodiacal constellation for purposes of astrological readings, Serpens, the serpent, which Ophiuchus bears, was quite important. The constellation Serpens consists of two segments, the head of the serpent, or dragon (Serpens caput), and the tail of the serpent (Serpens cauda). They were well known in Chaucer’s day, and recorded in the tables and calendars whch noted the moon’s cycles (North 95-6).Figure 3.3: Serpens cauda/caput in relationship to solar/lunar conjunctions (Roob 78). M. Maier, Septimana philosophica, Frankfurt. 1616.Figure 3.4: Serpens cauda caput and Ophiuchus along the ecliptic (emphasis added). © 1999, Astronomy.Twice a month, the moon on its own path passes through these two points—intersecting the ecliptic: once at the “moon’s north node,” or Serpens caput; the second time, through the “moon’s south node,” or Serpens cauda (Liungman 36). Eclipses take place when the “appropriate conjunctions or oppositions occur at points sufficiently near to one or other of the nodes of the Moon’s orbit, the head or tail of the Dragon [Serpens cauda/caput]” (North 97; Figures 3.3-4). Thus, when the paths of the sun (Sol) and moon (Luna) intersect, a conjunction (coniunctio) occurs. This is the celestial conjunction of opposites and macrocosmically represents the primary transforming theme of Midsummer. North also cites Shakespeare’s association of the “Dragon’s tail with lechery” (King Lear I.ii.35), and the human libido (450), elements of both which raise their heads (or tails) in Midsummer: in the calumnies of Oberon and Titania (II.i.61-76), and in the lovers’ libidinal romp in the forest.The importance of calculating these intersections was due to the fact that medievalists believed that conjunctions and oppositions of the sun and moon “are determinants of the weather, and even of certain events in human history” (North 100). This influence is obviously represented by Shakespeare in Midsummer in the unseasonal rains and the celebration of the royal marriage. According to North, blindness in one eye was “a debility of the moon,” and blindness in two eyes was possible when the sun and moon were in conjunction or opposition (450). In Midsummer, Shakespeare, through Helena, speaks poetically of the blindness of love:Things base and vile, holding no quantity,Love can transpose to form and dignity:Love looks not with the eyes, but with the mind,And therefore is wing’d Cupid painted blind;Nor hath Love’s mind of any judgement taste:Wings, and no eyes, figure unheedy haste.And therefore is Love said to be a child,Because in choice he is so oft beguil’d.As waggish boys, in game, themselves forswear,So the boy Love is perjured everywhere. (I.ii.231-241)This blindness results in multitudinous animist, or bestial, allusions throughout the play:Robin Goodfellow, Hobgoblin, Puck neighs “in likeness of a filly foal” (II.i.46);Titania may be enchanted by a “lion, bear, or wolf, or bull, meddling monkey, or busy ape” (II.i.180-1); or “ounce [lynx], or cat, or bear, or pard, or boar with bristled hair” (II.ii.29-30);Helena proffers to Demetrius that she be his “spaniel; [. . .] I will fawn on you” (II.i.203-4), and as “Apollo flies, and Daphne holds the chase; the dove pursues the griffin, the mild hind makes speed to catch the tiger,” so Helena pursues Demetrius (II.i.231-3);In Titania’s bower, the “snake throws her enamell’d skin” (II.i. 255);Helena is “ugly as a bear” and Demetrius is a “monster” (II.ii.93, 96);Hermia awakens from sleep, dreaming of a “serpent” (II.ii.144-149);Bottom is transformed into an ass (III.i); Titania with a “monster is in love (III.ii.6);Hermia calls Demetrius, “dog! cur! [. . .] a worm, an adder [. . ] serpent” (III.ii.65, 71-3);Lysander calls Hermia, “cat [. . .] burr [. . .] serpent,” “you minimus, of hindering knot-grass made; you bead, you acorn”(III.ii.260-1; 328-8);In the final waking of the lovers, Puck promises, “Jack shall have Jill, nought shall go ill; the man shall have his mare again, and all shall be well.” (III.ii.461-3).Jung asserts, “The more anthropomorphic and theriomorphic the terms become, the more obvious is the part played by creative fantasy and thus by the unconscious,” as they give rise to archetypes (Transference 3). In Midsummer, these bestial references suggest the primitive nature of the conflicts they embody, which occur primarily in the woods, or the realm of the unconscious.As in the case of many of the ancient constellations, Ophiuchus also has an earthly counterpart: Asclepius, the mythic founder of medicine, the doctor of the Argonauts. Legend has it that a serpent, entwined around a staff, bit and killed a man. However, another serpent appeared, bearing herbs, which Asclepius used to restore the man’s life. Because of this, the serpent became sacred to medicine as a symbol of regeneration. Asclepius was said to have brought many people back to life, including the son of King Minos of Crete. When Asclepius attempted to revive Orion who had been bitten by the scorpion, Pluto complained to Zeus that Asclepius would rob Pluto of the entire population of Hades. Zeus agreed: afraid of Asclepius’ healing power, he ended Asclepius’s life with a thunderbolt, and set him in the heavens with a new name, Ophiuchus, where he bears the serpent to this day (Dixon-Kennedy 228-9). According to Meadows, in Milton’s time, the constellation Asclepius/Ophiuchus was referred to as Serpentarius (57). This legend connects Ophiuchus not only to the chemical nature of alchemy, but also to the serpentine symbol of Hermes/Mercurius—the agent and vessel of the opus magnum. In the microcosm of Midsummer, Oberon’s hermetic agent is Puck. In the heavens, Ophiuchus’s serpent (Serpens cauda/caput) represents Hermes’s/Mercurius’s role in the alchemical symbolism in the play’s macrocosm.Figure 3.5: Summer Triangle/Lyra Mythic constellations. © 1988, Stephen Marchesi, Random House.Figure 3.6: Summer Triangle/Lyra (emphasis added). © 1999, Astronomy.In Figures 3.5-6, above the constellation Ophiuchus in the masculine plane is the constellation of the Summer Triangle, used by mariners for guidance. Using the astronomy of the play as an archetypal schema, the most obvious deific counterpart to Oberon, connected to Theseus, seems to be Poseidon, son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea, and brother of Zeus and Demeter. Long before Poseidon was god of the sea, he was called the “earth-shaker,” the god who held the earth and could produce earth tremors (Stapleton 182). He was also associated with the earth’s fertility, the waters, rain and rivers, which kept the earth alive. Thus, he was also worshiped as the god of fresh water. In Midsummer, the ability of the fairy king and queen to upset the course of nature is shown in the unseasonable, torrential floods resulting from their quarrel (II.i.81-117). In Act III.ii.388-395, Oberon states that he has “dallied with the love of the morning herself,” as the sun (which also alchemically suggests the masculine principle) rose over the sea. Again we see the connection of Oberon/Poseidon with water, fertility rites, and the ocean in particular. In Midsummer, fertility rites are evident in the rites of May. As Poseidon-Hippios (Lord of Horses), Poseidon also brought with him the ancient association with fertility as the god of the herdsmen and horse-keepers of a migrating race. When Demeter at one time changed herself into a mare and slipped in among the herds of Arcadia, Poseidon spotted the transformation, and turned himself into a horse as well, joined the herd, and mounted Demeter, which resulted in the birth of the steed Arion, the steed of Adrastus, King of Argos (Stapleton 66). If Oberon is thus equated with Poseidon-Hippios, might not Demeter also be equated with Titania? Is it any wonder, then, that Puck, being the agent of Poseidon-Hippios, turned Titania’s lover, Bottom, into an ass, parodying Titania’s archetypal relationship with Oberon?Hippolyta/Virgo: Titania/DemeterThe constellation Virgo dominates the feminine plane of the star chart (Figures 3.7-8). As such, Virgo, the maiden represents the chaste Amazon, Hippolyta. Hippolyta was a warrior maiden, who fought on horseback and was a huntress. Here we see a dual connection with the constellation of the Hunting Dogs, to Hippolyta, the huntress, and to the hunting grounds, the woods, which Titania rules. The Amazons’ origin was probably derived from the priestesses of the Moon Goddess (Artemis/Diana) who bore arms.Figure 3.7: Feminine plane~mythic constellations. © 1988 Stephen Marchesi, Random House.Figure 3.8: Constellations Virgo and Hunting Dogs (emphasis added). © 1999, Astronomy.Titania’s name means “descended from the Titans,” Cronus and Rhea, whose progeny were the Olympian gods (Herbert 41). Titania has been loosely linked in Elizabethan mythology with Artemis—twin sister to Apollo, the Greek counterpart of Diana, whose throne was a silver crescent moon (Brueton 61; Figure 3.9).Figure 3.9: Figure of the feminine archetype, Luna, represented in the shape of the crescent. Codex Urbanus Latinus 899. 15th century. (Jung, Psychology and Alchemy 405)The association of the feminine principle with the moon is ancient, and incorporates figures from Egyptian mythology (Isis), as well as to Demeter (the ancient earth mother), Diana/Artemis, and the Virgin Mary.Both chastity and fertility are attributes associated with the moon as feminine archetypes, especially in relation to the control of fluids, such as the tides, menstruation, and semen (Breuton 53,153-4). Water is primarily a symbol of the mother, of the womb, and also of the unconscious. Jung states that the unconscious “can be regarded as the mother or matrix of consciousness” (Transformation 218-19). The floods that occur unseasonably in Midsummer have dual significance: that of indicating the psychic disturbance in the unbalanced anima of Titania in relationship to the changeling boy, and that of serving as the watery womb of transformation for the lovers in the forest.The nature of the moon also suggests transformation: birth, growth, death, and rebirth, by virtue of its monthly cycles. The changing lunar phases represent the three aspects of the feminine: the virgin/maiden (waxing moon), the mother (full moon), and the crone (waning moon). The primary form of the anima is that of the mother, although at different times of life it may assume the form of the maiden or crone (hence the tripartite aspect of the goddess seen in the phases of the moon).However, Artemis/Diana has no power over the seasons, as Titania seems to have. Therefore, I propose that Titania’s Greek counterpart is Demeter, sister of Zeus and Poseidon. Demeter presided over the earth and its fertility as the ancient goddess of the fruitful earth and the Eleusinian mysteries (Stapleton 65-6). The myth of Demeter and her daughter, Persephone (also known as Kore), also embodies the triple aspect of the feminine archetype: Kore, the maiden; Demeter, the mother; and Hecate, the crone—associated with the darkness of the moon before rising, and its death before setting (Brueton 89). The cyclical change of seasons is represented in the story of Demeter and Kore, in which Kore was stolen by Hades and transported to the underworld for four months of the year. During those four months, the earth was barren, and only with the return of Kore was fruitfulness restored. The tripartite goddess—Kore/Demeter/Hecate—became, like the moon, a symbol of regeneration. The multiple associations of ancient goddesses with the moon are shown in Figure 3.10.Figure 3.10: Illustration of “the pagan goddesses as emanations of the lunar powers” (Roob 64). A. Kircher. Obeliscus Pamphilius, Rome. 1650.In Midsummer, the moon’s influence is directly connected to Titania and the supernatural realm of the woods—to which Hermia and Lysander “steal away,” which acts as both tomb and womb for the lovers, under the influence of Hecate—queen of the underworld. Interestingly enough, one of Hecate’s primary symbols was the snake (Aronson 227), and the snake or serpent also played an important role in initiation ceremonies—many of which occurred at the stage of the new moon, which was a symbol of new beginnings (Brueton 37, 123). In Midsummer, Hermia awakens from a dream calling for help from Lysander:Help me, Lysander, help me! Do thy bestTo pluck this crawling serpent from my breast!Ay, me, for pity! What a dream was here!Lysander, look how I do quake with fear.Methought a serpent ate my heart away. (II.ii.144-148).Puck refers to the moon goddesses, reigned in by Hecate, as he tells us of “we fairies that do run by the triple Hecate’s team, from the presence of the sun, following darkness like a dream” (V.i.369-372). The latent dangers of darkness, found in the chaos of the wood, are also aspects of Hecate’s negative but regenerative influence. In Midsummer, Hermia and Helena, as virginal maidens, represent Kore. Demeter, the mother, is represented in Titania’s connection with the changeling boy, as well as with the fairies’ procreative blessing of the bridal beds.Hippolyta, however, is connected to the self-sufficient aspect of the moon goddess, Diana/Artemis. June Singer asserts that the Amazon, who identified with Artemis, signifies an imbalance in Hippolyta’s ability to integrate the animus with her anima. Neither is Titania very far removed from Hippolyta in this aspect, for in her reluctance to give up the changeling boy, she embodies the “classic conflict between a matriarchal society, which seeks control of the male children, and a patriarchal society, which seeks control of the females” (Singer 48).Because of the significant role the changeling boy plays in the balance of anima/animus in the psychic world of Midsummer, we will now turn our attention to the archetype represented by the changeling boy—that of the primordial child.The Changeling Boy: The Primordial ChildIn Midsummer, the changeling boy is silent as well as nameless. As a character, he lacks a voice, and his role, while retained in the narrative of the play, is often visibly cut in many productions. However, his role is central to the poet’s artistic purposes in the play: the changeling child is the cause of the central conflict of the interior fairy play, and until this conflict in the play is resolved, no other conflict can be reconciled, in either wood or city. The changeling boy, as written by Shakespeare, is imagi
solved Immigration PromptFor this essay, I will need to write in
/in /by adminImmigration PromptFor this essay, I will need to write in first person about your family history. Although this is a personal essay, it does require some research. As with myself, I assume, like most Americans, that many of you have more nationalities than just one. I am asking you to choose one nationality and discuss the wave of that culture’s migration to the US in one paragraph. What were the causes that brought this culture to the United States? In another paragraph, I am interested in what struggles this culture had to face once they got to the U.S. In the third body paragraph, I would like you to address an aspect of illegal immigration today; finally, in the fourth paragraph, you will need to address whether or not you agree with making immigration illegal and why; lastly, you need a conclusion (you will need six paragraphs total). Furthermore, if you are full or part Native American, you can write about the history of your tribe in paragraph one, and in the second paragraph, you can write about what struggles this tribe faced in terms of American expansion. If you are African American, and you know that your family came to the United States through slavery, you can write about what brought African Americans to the United States during the slave years or what tribe your family may have or did originate from; in paragraph two you can address what was life like for a slave in America. If you are an international student or first wave immigrant, you can discuss what brought you to the United States and what cultural hurdles have you faced once here.You are allowed to use your family history for this essay; you can write about your relatives, interview them, and even use photographs (however, photographs are optional). I am asking you to use four sources (hard copy or from the library unless approved), and an optional interview. Lastly, this paper must utilize MLA format, and it needs to come out to a minimum of four full pages (not including works cited).Illegal but not Undocumented: Ronald MortensenundefinedMisconceptionsundefinedThat Illegal Aliens Are UndocumentedundefinedWilliam Riley, Former ICE Agent, Explains Identity Theft:undefinedView the Full InterviewundefinedWhen Jean Pierre from Montreal crosses the border into the United States illegally, he lacks the documents to obtain employment and other benefits that legal residents of the United States are entitled to. When Maggie from Dublin and Raj from India overstay their tourist visas in order to work in the United States, they find themselves in the same situation.undefinedBecause it is virtually impossible to live and work in the United States without documents, they and millions of others turn to fraudulent document dealers for falsified Social Security cards, forged drivers licenses, counterfeit green cards, and a wide range of other phony documents.undefinedAccording to Richard Hamp of the Utah Attorney General’s Office, illegal aliens rarely steal Americans’ total identities (a victim’s full name, date of birth, and SSN) simply because doing so is more difficult and expensive. Instead, illegal aliens commit SSN-only identity theft by obtaining fraudulent Social Security cards in their own names, often with random numbers made up by dealers. However, since about half of all SSNs have been issued, there is a 50-50 chance that the SSN already belongs to another person. And even if the number hasn’t been issued, the Social Security Administration may later assign it to an infant, thereby giving a newborn an instant credit history, arrest record, and liability for back taxes.undefinedThat Illegal Aliens Are Law-AbidingundefinedIllegal aliens who commit document fraud, use SSNs that do not belong to them, and falsify I-9 forms under penalty of perjury clearly are not ordinary law-abiding residents. They may be arrested and prosecuted for felony document fraud and perjury and in, certain states, they may be prosecuted for felony identity theft or felony identity fraud.undefinedSo, while simply living in the country without authorization is usually a civil offense, a large number of illegal aliens rapidly take the next step and commit serious felonies in order to obtain jobs and other benefits reserved for American citizens and legal residents.undefinedIdentity Theft Defined. The non-profit Identity Theft Resource Center defines identity theft as “a crime in which an impostor obtains key pieces of personal identifying information (PII) such as SSNs and drivers license numbers and uses them for their own personal gain.†According the Federal Trade Commission, “Identity theft occurs when someone uses your personally identifying information, like your name, SSN, or credit card number, without your permission, to commit fraud or other crimes…. They may get a job using your Social Security number.â€1undefinedTherefore, the use of an SSN belonging to someone else, whether knowingly or unknowing, is clearly identity theft according to these definitions. In addition, the victims of illegal alien SSN identity theft suffer clear and extremely serious harm.undefinedIn spite of this, under federal and many state statutes, a person using someone else’s SSN or other personal information must “knowingly†do so in order to be convicted of felony identity theft. The United States Supreme Court has ruled that prosecutors must prove that an illegal alien is knowingly using another person’s SSN in order to convict the illegal alien of identity theft under the federal statute, thereby, leaving the victims of these serious and often devastating crimes unprotected.undefinedAt the state level, Utah faced the problem of defense attorneys claiming that their illegal alien clients should get off because they were not knowingly using the SSNs of Utah children. Therefore, in 2006, in order to protect all American citizens and legal residents including tens of thousands of children, Utah’s identity fraud statute was amended to clearly state that it is not a defense to argue “that the person did not know that the personal information belonged to another person.â€undefinedFollowing the U.S. Supreme Court ruling, County Attorneys in Arizona expressed confidence that that state’s felony identity theft statute would withstand challenge and called on Congress to revise federal statutes to hold illegal aliens committing identity theft liable for their actions.2 Prosecutors in Kansas said that they would press legislators to revise identity theft statutes and it is anticipated that other states around the nation also will amend their statutes in order to protect their citizens from illegal alien-driven identity theft.3undefinedThe Relationship Between Identity Theft and Illegal Immigration. U.S. law enforcement agencies have observed that identity theft and immigration “go hand in hand.â€4 In Weld County, Colo., which has large numbers of illegal aliens employed in the meat packing industry, District Attorney Ken Buck reports that the principal driver of identity theft is job related5undefinedIdentity theft is one of the fastest-growing crimes in the United States and impacts millions of American citizens and legal residents each year, though actual numbers are difficult to determine because most governments and police departments don’t track identity theft. Even the Federal Trade Commission, which is the lead agency for reporting identity theft, only captures a small number of actual identity theft cases.undefinedBut we know that illegal aliens routinely use fraudulent SSNs belonging to American citizens and legal residents. In a 2002 report to Congress, the General Accounting Office stated: “INS has reported that large-scale counterfeiting has made fraudulent employment eligibility documents (e.g., Social Security cards) widely available.â€6 The Social Security Administration assumes that roughly three-quarters of illegal aliens are paying payroll taxes through withholding, which generally requires an SSN.7undefinedFor example, an immigration raid at an Agriprocessors, Inc., meat processing plant in Pottsville, Iowa, last year found that 76 percent of the plant’s employees had bogus SSNs.8 And during an April 2008 raid at Pilgrim’s Pride meat packing plants, more than 280 employees at facilities in five states were arrested on suspicion of committing identity theft and other criminal violations in order to obtain jobs.9 According to press reports, ICE agents said their investigation of Pilgrim’s Pride started when the victims of identity theft came forward after having problems with taxes and credit reports.10undefinedIllegal aliens’ fraudulent document use was further confirmed by Domingo Garcia, General Counsel for the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), who, according to press reports, said that it was well known that around 80 percent of the workers at Pilgrim’s Pride had fake identification.11undefinedSo its no surprise that Table 1 shows that states with the highest percentage illegal aliens in their total populations tend to have the highest incidence of overall identity theft, including significant levels of employment-related identity theft.undefinedOf the 10 states with the highest incidence of identity theft, eight are among the 10 states where illegal aliens account for the largest percentages of total population. The two remaining top-10 identity theft states are ranked 13 and 17 in terms of percentage of illegal aliens.undefinedIn 2008, 15 percent of all identity theft in the United States was employment-related, up from 14 percent in 2007.12Six of the 10 states with the highest identity theft have employment-related identity theft rates that exceed the national average. In Arizona, where substantive illegal immigration-related legislation was passed and where employment verification is now required, employment-related identity theft dropped significantly, from 39 to 33 percent of all identity theft cases. In Colorado, employment-related identity theft increased from 17 to 22 percent between 2007 and 2008. In New Mexico, the increase was from 19 to 23 percent; in Texas, from 24 to 27 percent; and in California, from 17 to 20 percent.undefinedICE Efforts Are Improving. ICE is the lead agency addressing immigration-related document fraud and identity theft. In 2006, the agency established the Document and Benefits Fraud Task Forces (DBFTF), which are now in place in 17 ICE field offices. Their mission is to investigate and dismantle criminal organizations that make, sell, and distribute identity documents to circumvent immigration laws or for any other criminal purpose and to seize their equipment and assets. For example, ICE agents in Denver, assisted by other field offices and federal agencies, took down the notorious Castorena family organization. The family ran a massive nationwide network of fake document rings, producing papers such as green cards, Social Security cards, drivers licenses, and other types of documents. Their franchises reached all 50 states.undefinedThe work of the DBFTFs intersects with other agency work, including counter-terrorism investigations and worksite operations. Many of ICE’s recent worksite enforcement operations have been launched as a result of information or activity uncovered by the DBFTFs. The 2006 operation conducted against the Swift & Company meat processing business, which resulted in the arrest of nearly 1,300 illegal aliens, was launched after ICE agents discovered hundreds of victims of identity theft from illegal workers at the Swift plants.undefinedWhile ICE has recently been able to increase its efforts in this area, the agency has limited resources that are stretched across multiple priorities. In 2007, ICE worked 5,080 identity and/or benefit fraud cases, generating hundreds of indictments, arrests, and convictions.13 However, this represented only 7 percent of ICE’s total case load, reflecting the reality that violent criminals and drug smuggling are a more pressing investigative priority for ICE. Further, the DBFTFs must focus their efforts on dismantling large criminal enterprises. They do not have the resources or personnel to investigate every individual alien identity thief. As with other kinds of criminal activity, it is up to state and local law enforcement agencies to identify and address what is happening in their jurisdiction, and be the prosecutors of first resort.undefinedThat Illegal Imigration Is a Victimless CrimeundefinedIllegal alien-driven identity theft is not a victimless crime. It impacts millions of Americans of all ages. Newborn infants and children often are the victims of illegal alien identity thieves. IRS agents, law enforcement officials, people with disabilities, the unemployed, and even those serving time in jail have been victimized by illegal aliens using their SSNs in order to obtain jobs and other benefits. According to the Wall Street Journal, American citizens with Hispanic surnames are 1.5 times more likely to be victims of job-related identity theft than are other Americans.14undefinedFollowing the Swift meat packing raids, Department of Homeland Secretary, Michael Chertoff told reporters that:undefinedAnybody who has ever been a victim of identity theft understands the hardship, and, in fact, the persistent hardship, that follows from this kind of crime, and the hardship that is felt by innocent people.undefinedNow, this is not only a case about illegal immigration, which is bad enough. It’s a case about identity theft in violation of the privacy rights and the economic rights of innocent Americans…. These individuals suffered very real consequences in their lives. These were not victimless crimes. 15undefinedThus, when illegal aliens use SSNs or other documents belonging to American citizens and legal residents, the damage can be substantial. The true owners risk being saddled with the illegal aliens’ credit, arrest, and medical records. Victims may be denied jobs, unemployment insurance, Social Security payments, and Medicaid benefits. It costs victims hundreds of hours and thousands of dollars to undo the damage and recover their names and lives.undefinedIn addition, all Americans are impacted by the fallout from illegal alien-driven document fraud and identity theft. Rather than spending their earnings in the United States and helping fuel the consumer-driven American economy, illegal workers minimize their expenditures in the United States so they can send billions of dollars back to their home countries. During a recessionary period, this transfer makes it all the more difficult to turn the economy around.undefinedWhen the economy hits hard times and Americans and legal residents lose their jobs, illegal aliens can continue to work using their stolen identities and fraudulent documents. If an illegal alien who is laid off uses his fraudulent documents to obtain unemployment benefits, this drives up the cost of unemployment insurance. If an illegal alien is using an American’s SSN to obtain unemployment benefits, that citizen will be denied benefits that he or she is legally entitled to.undefinedChildren Are Prime Targets. Children do not use their SSNs for employment or to obtain credit so parents generally do not check their children’s credit histories, allowing a person using a child’s SSN to go undetected for years. Sometimes document vendors sell fraudulent identity packages using unassigned SSNs that are later assigned to a child, causing them problems before they are even born.undefined“We have a major problem with workers in medical offices stealing patients’ identities, selling them, and making a direct profit,†according to Sergeant James Bracke of the Phoenix Police Department.16 The stolen numbers are sold to immigrant smuggling groups who use them to fabricate fraudulent documents for people they bring into the United States via Arizona. The result of this is that in Arizona, child identity theft is nearly four times the national rate and an estimated 1.1 million Arizona children have had their identities stolen.117undefinedState and local investigators in Utah uncovered a crime spree involving illegal aliens using the SSNs of tens of thousands of children. They identified 1,626 companies paying wages to the SSNs of children on public assistance under the age of 13.18 One child’s SSN was being used by 37 adults.undefinedIllegal aliens used the Utah children’s SSNs to get jobs, start businesses, and open bank accounts. One suspect told investigators he paid $100 for a boy’s SSN. Victims included a five-year-old girl who supposedly traveled 80 miles to her job at a steak restaurant, an eight-year-old boy who apparently owned a cleaning company and worked as a prep cook at two upscale restaurants, and an 11-year-old boy who supposedly worked for an express air freight company. The suspects were charged with third degree felony counts of identity fraud and forgery.19undefinedEmployment-related identity theft is the largest single driver (27 percent) of identity theft in the state of Texas. Almost 900,000 people became victims of identity theft in Texas in 2007. The cost to Texas victims was an estimated $435.7 million and Texas residents spent an estimated total of 3.5 million hours resolving identity theft issues.20undefinedThe link between illegal aliens and identity theft was further confirmed by the Social Security Administration’s Special Agent in Charge in Salt Lake City. As reported in the May 3, 2006, Salt Lake Tribune:undefinedAccording to Ronald Ingleby, Special Agent in Charge of the Social Security Administration’s Office of the Inspector General in Utah, real Social Security numbers and accounts are being created, or purloined, by undocumented workers to circumvent employers’ efforts to certify their legality….Ninety-eight percent of Social Security-related ID theft cases involve people who use their own names but use someone else’s Social Security number. Two percent involve perpetrators using the numbers to assume their victims’ identities…. 21undefinedIdentity Theft Victims Suffer Real Consequences. Victims of identity theft suffer real consequences. The victims of workers at the Swift packing plants included an individual in Texas whose personal information was being used by an illegal alien for employment. The victim was pulled over and arrested because the illegal alien had used his identity to conduct criminal activity.22undefinedIn Utah, the staff of the state’s Workforce Services office has seen children denied Medicaid benefits because adults were using their SSNs. Based on information developed by Workforce Services, Utah Attorney General, Mark Shurtleff warned the public about the devastating impact that illegal alien identity theft has on children when he said:undefinedIdentity thieves are no respecters of age. They will steal your children’s ID, ruin their credit, and hurt them in ways never thought possible before they can graduate from grade school. Children are vulnerable even if parents do everything right.23undefinedIn Illinois, an American citizen was denied a job at a Target store because one of 37 people who were using her SSN was already employed by the company. According to MSNBC, “The woman found herself in a financial nightmare. All those imitators made a mess out of her work history, her Social Security records, and her credit report. She was haunted by bills and creditors. She received threatening letters from the IRS, asking her to pay taxes on money earned by imposters. She was told to re-pay unemployment benefits she had received, after the government discovered she was ‘working’ while drawing benefits.â€24undefinedA man whose SSN was used to obtain employment in at least three states was told by the IRS that he owed $64,000 in unpaid taxes in spite of the fact that he had been incarcerated in a state penitentiary during the time the income was earned.25undefinedA nursing home resident nearly lost his disability benefits because a worker at a Pilgrim’s Pride meat plant was using his identity and it appeared that the disabled patient was working.26 An Air Force veteran was arrested on a warrant for unpaid parking tickets incurred by an illegal alien using his identity. He was only released after paying a $340 fine for tickets that he did not incur. He continued to receive demands for the payment of outstanding taxes on income that he had not earned and he saw his credit rating destroyed.27undefinedThese stories are just the tip of the iceberg. Millions of Americans either knowingly or unknowingly are sharing their SSNs with illegal aliens and are having their lives slowly usurped by the identity thieves. They will only learn of the damage done when they are denied credit, receive a notice for taxes on income they didn’t earn, are denied benefits that they are entitled to, find that their medical records have been corrupted with possibly life-threatening consequences, or when collection agencies start calling.undefinedA Culture of CorruptionundefinedEven those American citizens or legal residents whose identities are not stolen by an illegal alien still suffer the consequences of rampant document fraud and identity theft.undefinedOne of the key elements of a free and democratic society is respect for the rule of law by both the government and individuals. However, in most illegal aliens’ homelands, the rule of law is routinely disregarded and official corruption is a serious problem.undefinedTransparency International’s Corruption Prevention Index (CPI) ranks 180 countries by their perceived levels of corruption. CPI scores range between 10 (highly clean) and 0 (highly corrupt). The average score for the 10 countries that account for the vast majority of illegal aliens in the United States is 3.43, indicating a serious level of corruption (see Table 2).undefinedIn contrast, the least corrupt countries in the world are Denmark, New Zealand, and Sweden, with scores of 9.3. Canada, which has 67,000 illegal aliens in the United States, comes in at 8.7, and the United States’ score is 7.3, or 18th in the world. The United States’ score is one of the lowest scores among the industrialized nations and it has gone down in the past few years.undefinedAs Transparency International points out, “People are as corrupt as the system allows them to be. It is where temptation meets permissiveness that corruption takes root on a wide scale.â€28 Thus, under a permissive U.S. system that fails to control the nation’s borders, that allows a fraudulent document market to flourish, that allows employers turn a blind eye to the legal status of their workers, and where civic, religious, and political leaders support felons over victims, it is not surprising that illegal aliens without a pre-existing allegiance to the rule of law see nothing wrong with using fraudulent documents to obtain jobs and benefits that they are not entitled to.undefinedThose sworn to uphold the law also contribute to the permissiveness that leads to corruption and a weakening of the rule of law. When a human trafficking bill was being debated in the Utah House of Representatives, an attorney and former judge amended the bill to allow farmers to transport illegal aliens up to 100 miles without being charged with trafficking.29 Utah’s Attorney General told illegal aliens present at a massive rally for illegal alien rights that “Many of my fellow Republicans will criticize me for being here. They’ll tell me instead of speaking to you, that as the chief law enforcement of Utah I should be arresting you. [That’s] not going to happen.â€30 In some cities, sanctuary policies prohibit law enforcement officials from questioning aliens about their immigration status or from contacting or assisting ICE.undefinedThis culture of corruption is reinforced when illegal aliens are offered special benefits such as in-state tuition, drivers licenses, financial services, and religious offices and privileges in spite of their multiple, ongoing violations of civil and criminal law. The increasing acceptance of corruption has a debilitating effect on the overall respect for the rule of law with the result that illegal aliens become involved in a wide range of other criminal activities including tax fraud; mortgage fraud; violation of drivers license, insurance, and traffic laws; and gang membership.undefinedTax CorruptionundefinedIllegal aliens and their employers are frequently involved in tax fraud. This results in lower revenues for governments at all levels and higher taxes for American citizens and legal residents. Some illegal aliens work “off the books†and thus pay no income taxes on earned income, while their employers avoid payroll taxes.undefinedMany illegal aliens use a combination of Individual Taxpayer Identification Numbers (ITIN) and fraudulent SSNs to obtain tax refunds that they are not entitled to. For example, in Weld County, Colo., law enforcement officials uncovered tax fraud that involved 1,300 illegal immigrants using fraudulent SSNs to obtain more than $2.6 million in tax refunds.31 Treasury Department auditors have noted disapprovingly that the IRS allows illegal aliens filing returns with ITINs to obtain millions of dollars in credits and deductions to which they are not entitled as non-permanent aliens.32undefinedIn spite of this, the IRS has distributed about 15 million ITINs since 1996, with a large share believed to be assigned to illegal aliens.33 As reported by The New York Times,undefinedIn the Queens center, Ana Andrade, 32, from Mexico….presented a W-2 form that showed withholding of more than $3,000 from the $24,000 she had earned as a cook in a Manhattan restaurant, at $10 an hour. Like more than seven million such W-2 forms nationwide, hers bore a false Social Security number.undefinedNo problem, the senior tax specialist explained. Her return would be filed under her ITIN, with the problematic W-2 form, and the IRS would simply credit her wages to her ITIN. The result: a $2,000 refund, based mainly on child credits for her two American-born children.34undefinedFinancial CorruptionundefinedAmerica’s leading financial institutions accept foreign identity documents as well as ITINs that are only supposed to be used for the payment of taxes. Some banks and credit unions facilitate money transfers to foreign countries by illegal aliens. They design financial products specifically for illegal aliens, including credit cards. Some have set up special banking units to serve illegal aliens’ special needs and they actively solicit the business of illegal aliens.undefinedFinancial institutions also issue risky mortgages and loans to illegal aliens who are not authorized to work and who are subject to arrest and/or removal at any time, which can lead to a default on their mortgages or loans. In Denver, for example, fraudulent documents were used by illegal aliens to get Federal Housing Administration-backed loans and in one case the counterfeit documents were used to purchase 300 homes valued at $51 million. The FHA insurance fund lost millions of dollars.35undefinedEconomic CorruptionundefinedIllegal aliens working with stolen identities and fraudulent documents transfer billions of dollars to foreign nations that would otherwise have been spent and invested in the United States. In October 2008, at a time the United States economy was reeling from an unprecedented financial crisis and a sharp drop in consumer spending, remittances to Mexico rose to $2.4 billion, a 13 percent jump from $2.2 billion in remittances in October 2007. If this were to continue at the same level for the entire year, the amount of remittances ($28.8 billion) just to Mexico would exceed the total amount initially requested to bail out the three major American automakers.36undefinedDuring a time of recession, illegal aliens using fraudulent documents may continue to be employed while American citizens and legal residents doing many of the same jobs are let go. When this occurs, the illegal aliens are, in fact, doing jobs that Americans are more than willing to do. In addition, the illegal aliens continue to transfer a significant portion of their earnings out of the country rather spending them in the United States in order to help the economy recover from recession.undefinedAccording to a study by the Pew Hispanic Center, the unemployment rate for native-born Hispanics was 9.6 percent in the third quarter of 2008. The rate for immigrant Hispanics, when adjusted for individuals dropping out of the workforce, was 7.8 percent. Wage losses for native-born Hispanics were actually larger than those for foreign-born Latinos. From the third quarter 2007 to the third quarter 2008, employment of Latinos in the construction industry declined by 5.3 percent while employment of non-Latinos decreased by 5.9 percent. Long-term trends show that the differences between Hispanic and non-Hispanic participation in the labor force remained relatively stable. Thus, while recent statistics show that unemployment rates have grown among immigrants,37 it does
solved Discuss the significance and impact of the third wave of
/in /by adminDiscuss the significance and impact of the third wave of industrial revolutions.Â
Explain the post-industrial concept as outlined in Stearns chapter 11.
Briefly describe the process of industrialization in one of the following countries or regions: the Pacific Rim, Brazil, Mexico, Turkey, China, or India (see Stearns chapter 12).
From the Lecture
Highlight some of the strengths and weaknesses of the Brazilian, Russian, Indian, and Chinese economies. pls note that each answer must be written under its question, also, this is not an essay, these discussion and quiz are not releated so don’t let them have some commen opinions
Chapter 11
The advance of industrialization was not high on the world’s agenda after World War II compared to restoring war-torn economies and preventing another depression. Both Europe and Japan had suffered huge losses. The Soviet Union seized experts and material from its new satellites in Eastern Europe in its efforts to rebuild. U.S. aid assisted the recovery process in Western Europe, and U.S. occupation forces oversaw political and economic reforms in Japan. For a brief time, however, only the economy of the United States seemed poised for further industrial growth. Many expert judged that Western Europe would become permanently dependent on U.S. economic leadership. Simply rebuilding war-shattered economies seemed challenge enough. Outside the industrial world, political, not directly economic, issues predominated as a surge of independence movements led to rapid decolonization. Economic inequalities formed a backdrop to these struggles, and newly independent states quickly turned to hopes for economic development. But the initial priorities lay elsewhere.
Yet, in fairly short order, the postwar world ushered in a third phase of international history—a phase societies are still grappling with in the early twenty-first century. By this point, industrialization was directly involving far more peoples than ever before, with huge implications for world power balance, the environment, and the nature of daily life. Key political events helped trigger important new developments. Decolonization did not magically generate industrial revolutions in the new states, and vast economic inequalities persisted, even deepened, among various regions of the world. Several major new governments, however, free from direct colonial control, launched new economic programs that expanded their manufacturing sectors.
Both in Europe and in Japan, it turned out that societies that were already industrial could rebuild surprisingly quickly. Western Europe reacted to the shock of World War II and the ensuing Cold War by seeking to reduce economic and political nationalism and by committing its governments to industrial planning, creating a framework for the surprising economic resurgence of the region, which regained its position as one of the most advanced industrial areas of the world. Japan surged ahead even more rapidly.
The world’s third phase of the industrial revolution had several primary facets. First, there were a number of major new industrial revolutions. Expansion started slowly, with particular focus on the Pacific Rim. But by the 1990s a number of huge economies, including India and China, pulled into the process. The revolution that had begun two hundred years earlier in Britain had not played itself out yet. By the twenty-first century over half the world was effectively industrial for the first time. Regional inequality remained an agonizing problem, but its dimensions were redefined. Second, at the same time, established industrial societies moved toward a new set of technologies that had substantial social implications. Some observers talked of a third, or postindustrial, revolution in trying to convey the magnitude of these new developments. Continued change in advanced industrial societies, plus the surge of newcomers, raised vital questions about mutual relationships, such as, How could old and new industrial economies best interrelate? This facet was related strongly to the preceding categories of change—industrialization had a more decisive impact on the international framework than ever before. Communications accelerated, commercial contacts moved to new levels, and industrial units operated worldwide in a process that came to be called “globalization.†The industrial revolution, which had already changed the nature and extent of international contacts, now burst beyond the bounds of nations and even whole civilizations. Finally, global industrial growth helped to generate a new level of social and environmental change, altering many aspects of the human experience in most of the world’s regions.
New Members of the Industrial Club: The 1960s
The most dramatic new industrial revolutions took shape starting in the 1960s and occurred in medium-sized nations and city-states on the Pacific Rim. The industrialization of South Korea propelled this nation to unprecedented economic levels, making it a growing force in industrial exports of such goods as automobiles, electrical appliances, and ships; by 2006 the nation had the tenth largest economy in the world. Taiwan (the Republic of China after Nationalist forces established their government there in 1948, following their loss to communist forces on the mainland) was a second site of Pacific Rim industrialization. The city-states of Hong Kong and Singapore rounded out the membership of the Pacific Rim’s industrial club—along with Japan, of course, as senior member, which was now the world’s second largest economy. In another part of the world, the new state of Israel established an industrial economy, which included a strong commercial agricultural sector. And South Africa emerged further as the only substantially industrial economy on the vast African continent.
These centers of new industrialization were not large. They combined some distinctive features in their growing industrial success that were lacking in most other nonindustrial areas of the world. All the new industrial revolutions depended on careful government backing. The Pacific Rim states, most of them initially operating under authoritarian strongman governments, meticulously planned industrial development, implicitly imitating many of the policies that had developed previously in Japan. These governments also limited political dissent. None of the economies was state-run; these countries encouraged free enterprise, but the government’s planning role was crucial. All of the new industrial economies also benefited from strong contacts with the West. South Korea emerged from a war with communist North Korea early in the 1950s with massive U.S. support. American economic aid and military spending did not alone account for South Korea’s industrialization, but they provided an important initial spur. Taiwan was another Asian Cold War center, as the United States long opposed the new communist regime of the mainland. Again, substantial economic aid and military spending—a U.S. fleet operated from Taiwan—helped launch an industrialization process. By the time the United States recognized the mainland People’s Republic of China in the 1970s and reduced its commitment to Taiwan, the island’s industrial revolution was self-sustaining. Singapore and Hong Kong gained advantages into the 1960s from heavy British military and economic investment. Israel drew hundreds of thousands of European Jews, who brought with them
Chapter 12
Although dramatic industrial revolutions occurred in several parts of the world, the expansion of industrial economies included other patterns as well. The integration of parts of southern Europe and Eastern Europe (for example, Romania) with the industrial economies of Western Europe and the Soviet Union, respectively, also multiplied the number of industrialized nations and regions. The process of fanning out showed clearly in Spain. Two Spanish centers—Catalonia in light industry and Bilbao in metallurgy—had industrialized earlier. After 1950 Spain received substantial investment from both the United States and Western Europe and ultimately became a Common Market member. This investment set the framework for industrialization from the 1970s onward, though Spanish industrial levels continued to lag somewhat. The same pattern emerged in parts of the American South. Before 1900 this region was largely a raw-materials supplier to Europe and the industrial northern United States. Then some light industry began to locate in mill towns, drawing on cheap labor. General U.S. industrial expansion during and after World War II created a genuine industrial boom in some southern states, which acquired a label connoting the strong economy: the “New South.†Developments of this sort were vitally important, but although they expanded the industrial geography, they created no major new themes. Rather, they extended the process of industrial integration of what had initially been fringe areas of existing industrial regions.
Far more novel and important was the surge of industrial development in new parts of Asia and Latin America, which was characterized by two major phases: important cases of full-scale industrial revolutions by the 1960s and the even more important surge of new industrializations by the century’s end.
Israel: Development in the Desert
The establishment in 1948 of the state of Israel involved significant industrialization. This development was important, but it was also highly unusual in terms of industrial history.
During the first half of the twentieth century, Jewish settlers in Palestine had brought with them assumptions about commerce and technology drawn from their European background. As Zionists they had a deep commitment to Israel and also to a wider range of economic activities than had been common among European Jews. In particular, they worked to extend commercial agriculture in an area where centuries of excessive farming had reduced the fertility of the soil. They drained swamps, established new irrigation systems, and sank new wells. In sum, a major transformation of agriculture had occurred before the formation of the Israeli state. Extensive commercial production, some of it destined for export sale, was based not only on hard work and cooperation among the settlers but also on advanced agricultural technology and construction. The state of Israel extended commercial agriculture, concentrating on products such as fruits, eggs, and cotton that could be sold abroad.
Commercial agriculture laid the groundwork for the development of new industry, which was also furthered by massive Jewish immigration, initially mainly from war-torn Europe, which doubled the Jewish population between 1948 and 1953. Many of the new settlers, though ravaged by the Holocaust, brought established craft and commercial skills and moved relatively easily into the task of establishing an industrial economy.
Israeli industrialization focused on the production of consumer goods that would both supply needs within Israel and be suitable for export. By the 1960s a quarter of the population worked in manufacturing, and although agriculture remained important, Israel by this point was an industrial leader in the Middle East. The nation depended heavily on imports, particularly of advanced machinery and raw materials for industry. Despite its export energy, it tended to suffer from an adverse balance of payments, which was offset by earnings from tourism and by continued foreign aid.
The Pacific Rim
Led by South Korea, the Pacific Rim began to industrialize rapidly during the 1960s. The achievement of these countries was in many ways unexpected. Many of the new centers, including South Korea and the island nation of Taiwan, had little apparent industrial background and few particular advantages in launching an industrial revolution. Many had been devastated by World War II and subsequent events. Japanese occupation had been brutal and costly. Taiwan had subsequently suffered from being taken over by communist China between 1945 and 1949; a new, Nationalist Chinese government, committed to continuing the struggle with its giant communist neighbor, took control of the island. Tensions and some outright hostilities peppered the 1950s. Korea, divided between communist- and Westerncontrolled zones after 1945, faced recovery not only from the long period of Japanese control but also from the costly war between North and South that broke out in 1949. Few observers in 1950 could have predicted South Korea and Taiwan as locations of the world’s next decisive set of industrial revolutions. Indeed, most assumed that industrialization would come next in one of the more stable newly independent nations, such as India.
South Korea, Taiwan, and other parts of the Pacific Rim certainly matched the classic latecomer industrial model, much as Japan had before them. They faced immense industrial competition from established areas, including a rapidly rebuilding Japan. They needed to develop special advantages to catapult them into the ranks of the industrializing powers. Again like Japan and Russia, the previous leaders in latecomer industrial revolutions, the Pacific Rim nations relied heavily on state planning and state guidance—in societies governed by authoritarian leaders who actively supported the process of economic transformation and who were eager to prevent political instability. Government direction was supplemented by low-wage labor, which provided opportunities for developing relatively inexpensive factory production in certain sectors despite an initial lack of technological leadership.
Some parts of the Pacific Rim were also able to build on previous if limited experiences with factory industry. Hong Kong, for example, was one of the centers in which British and Chinese business interests had developed extensive commercial institutions and some modern manufacturing from the late nineteenth century onward. Scholars have found the case of South Korea less clear. Japanese occupation after 1910 had been exploitative, and many observers have assumed that the results held down Korean economic development. However, some recent research has suggested that although Japan unquestionably used Korean resources and labor as supplements to its industrial economy, it also provided some significant industrial experience on the peninsula. The Japanese government built railroads and Japanese businesses invested in some Korean factories with an eye to sales back home.
Explicit government support and some prior factory development do not, however, account for the extraordinary surge of the Pacific Rim after 1960. Many other regions of the world had governments that backed industrialization, and many had gained at least as much experience in modern manufacturing during the 1880–1950 decades. Many, certainly, could and did offer low-wage labor. Two other factors seem to have prompted Pacific Rim industrialization, differentiating this region from the many other areas where the next industrial revolutions might instead have occurred.
First, most of the areas initially involved enjoyed some special contacts with the West after World War II. Singapore, for example, had been founded by Great Britain in the nineteenth century and had long served as a major military base in Southeast Asia; this encouraged business investments even after independence in 1959. Hong Kong was another British enclave from the imperialist period; even as it gained growing autonomy in the 1960s, it was able to use commercial and technical contacts with Britain and the United States as part of its economic development. Taiwan became a major Cold War partner of the United States, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s, when the United States refused to recognize the communist regime on the mainland. Partnership meant military support, but it also meant considerable economic aid until the late 1960s. By the time U.S. aid ended, Taiwan was developing rapidly on its own and indeed generating some manufacturing competition against the United States. The same pattern applied in South Korea. During and after the Korean War, the United States poured substantial economic aid into the nation, hoping to rebuild it as a staunch Cold War ally against the communist regime in North Korea. Again, not only investment but technological exchange was facilitated. Many Koreans, like many Taiwanese, studied in the United States, particularly engineering, management, and agriculture.
The second factor distinguishing Pacific Rim industrialization had to do with important features that these societies shared with Japan. The fact of Japanese industrial success, including the nation’s striking recovery after World War II, served as some inspiration in the Asian Pacific, even in the nations that had cordially detested Japanese occupation. Commitment to reform through the agency of strong government also revived a pattern from Japan’s early industrial decades. Most important, the initial Pacific Rim industrializers maintained a substantial Confucian cultural tradition. Like Japan, they had to modify Confucianism substantially in order to industrialize, providing more attention to scientific and technical training and more defiance of purely traditional learning than strict Confucianism entailed. But Confucianism also provided special habits of deference and cooperation conducive to forming industrial management strategies, building on group loyalty, and engaging in collective decision making. The same habits encouraged a bond between workers and managers, promoting a willingness to work hard and sacrifice for the good of the firm or the nation. Confucian culture provided a different context for the industrial revolution from that of Western or Russian culture, and it promoted different patterns of management and labor; but it was demonstrably successful. This cultural factor was critical to the region’s ability after 1960 to steal a march on the rest of the nonindustrial world and to gain on the established industrial giants themselves.
Industrial Growth in the Pacific Rim
South Korea, the most obvious exemplar of Pacific Rim industrial revolutions, emerged in the 1980s as the most important industrial economy in the region after that of Japan. Government support combined with active business entrepreneurship to create huge industrial firms from about 1960 onward. Exports were actively encouraged, for Korea needed to earn foreign exchange to buy the most modern equipment and some raw materials. By the 1970s, when Korean industrial growth rates began to match those of Japan, Korea was competing successfully in cheap consumer goods, such as plastics, and also in steel and automobiles, and was serving a variety of international markets. Korea based its surge in steel on the most up-to-date technology, a skilled engineering sector, and low wages, soon pushing past Japan. The same held true in textiles, where Korean growth (along with that of Taiwan) erased almost one-third of the jobs in the same industry in Japan.
Huge industrial groups like Daewoo and Hyundai resembled the great Japanese holding companies before and after World War II, wielding great political influence. Hyundai, created by Chung Ju Yung, had 135,000 employees by the 1980s and offices around the world. The company virtually governed Korea’s southeastern coast. It built ships and automobiles. It constructed thousands of housing units for its low-wage labor force, promoting worker stability at a relatively modest cost. Its sponsorship of technical schools provided a steady supply of skilled workers and technicians, for South Korea did not import labor from other areas. Hyundai, like other major Korean companies, also built a framework for workers’ social life and a series of rituals that helped tie workers to each other and to the company. The similarities to the kinds of labor policies installed in Japan, particularly after 1920, were striking. Company sports facilities included an arena for the practice of the traditional Korean martial art, tae kwon do. Workdays began with group exercises and other expressions of solidarity. With their lives carefully organized, Hyundai workers seemed to respond in kind, putting in six-day weeks with three vacation days per year and participating in reverential ceremonies when a fleet of cars was shipped abroad or a new tanker was launched.
Korea’s steady economic gains resulted in a per capita income that rose almost tenfold between 1950 and 1990 despite massive population growth, though Korean living standards still lagged well behind those of Japan. Leading Korean businessmen amassed considerable fortunes. Korean industry competed not only in Japan but also in the United States, where Korean cars made noticeable inroads alongside more massive imports from Japan. The nation was in the world’s top industrial ranks by the twenty-first century, at which point the nation had also become a political democracy.
Industrialization in Taiwan was slightly less impressive than that in Korea, but many basic trends were similar. An authoritarian government, led by Nationalist Chinese, generated some discontent but also provided considerable political stability; this pattern, too, paralleled that of Korea. Elaborate economic planning mechanisms were designed to make the most of limited capital and resources, though as in Korea government action was compatible with considerable latitude for private business. Increased government funding of education produced rising literacy rates and rapid improvement in levels of technical training.
Taiwanese manufactured products sold widely around the world. Inexpensive consumer items, including plastic products and textiles, became a Taiwanese hallmark. Japan served as the nation’s most important trading partner, purchasing foodstuffs, manufactured textiles, chemicals, and other industrial goods. Japan’s own explosive growth by the 1980s clearly facilitated the further development of Pacific Rim industrialization, as Japan concentrated increasingly on high-technology production, depending on other areas not only for raw materials but also for the less expensive categories of factory goods—some of which had once been Japanese staples when the nation launched its surge into world industrial markets.
The two other centers of Pacific Rim commerce and industry were the city-states of Hong Kong and Singapore. Manufacturing and banking services came to surpass shipping as sources of revenue. Oil refineries and textile and electronics factories joined shipbuilding as major sectors. Hong Kong also built on its status as a major world port. Its banking sector expanded because the city served as a commercial bridge to communist China. Export production in industry, particularly in textiles, combined high-speed technology with low wages and long hours for the labor force, yielding highly competitive results.
Expanding the Rim?
By the 1980s the steady industrial development of the Pacific Rim—led, of course, by Japan as the oldest and largest industrial power in the region—was beginning to draw in other parts of eastern and southeastern Asia plus Australia. An eastern Pacific economic zone was taking shape, the most advanced sectors stimulating factory development in outlying areas. During the early 1960s, for example, the Malaysian government began to fund expansion of the manufacturing sector (then responsible for only about 15 percent of total national income). No full industrial revolution occurred, but the range of manufactured products climbed, and standards of living improved as well. Thailand was another entrant into the region’s rapid-growth sectors. A significant stream of Thai workers labored in Japan (along with migrant workers from the Philippines and Korea, since Japan’s labor force no longer sufficed for all the nation’s needs, particularly in the less-skilled jobs). Exports from Thailand expanded, mainly in the category of foods and raw materials, but Japanese demand helped expand the manufacturing sector as well. The expansion of the Pacific Rim economy embraced Indonesia, where economic growth accelerated, though without as much manufacturing as in Thailand or Malaysia. Australia participated actively, expanding its industrial exports but, particularly, serving as Japan’s major supplier of foods and raw materials aside from petroleum.
The Pacific Rim encountered serious setbacks in the 1990s, and Japanese growth slowed decisively. By the early twenty-first century, however, growth in countries such as Korea had resumed vigorously and provided renewed evidence that a durable industrial revolution had occurred throughout the region.
Brazil, Mexico, and Turkey: The Next Wave
The emergence of growing industrial economies in Mexico, Turkey, and Brazil did not initially rival the industrialization of the Pacific Rim in importance or drama. All three countries—particularly Brazil—entered the ranks of significant industrial exporters by the 1980s. Factory textiles in Turkey, for example, became competitive in world trade, with significant exports to advanced industrial nations such as Germany. Brazil’s steel industry exported successfully to the United States, and Brazilian and Korean steel combined to dent American production by the late 1970s. Brazil also became the world’s fourth-largest exporter of computers, deliberately tapping markets below the level of the most sophisticated technology and developing a substantial manufacturing sector in the process.
Governments in Mexico, Turkey, and Brazil eagerly backed industrial development, beginning their support in the 1920s (Turkey) and the 1930s (Brazil and Mexico). Government sponsorship of industry included carefully negotiated trade arrangements with other regions, active solicitation of foreign aid and investment, and support for technical training and infrastructure. Finally, all three nations had developed sectors of factory industry in the previous period in world industrial history, and these served as the basis for subsequent industrial expansion. In short, none of the three was a newcomer to the industrial game.
At the same time, however, Mexico, Turkey, and Brazil continued to experience rapid population growth. A substantial proportion of the labor force remained rural, and the production of agricultural goods for export—including Brazil’s traditional cash crops such as coffee and Turkey’s newer success in growing fruits and nuts for sale in Europe—served as clear reminders that industrialization had not yet displaced earlier commercial patterns. All three countries contained large and expanding numbers of urban poor, as factory growth could not keep pace with the movement of impoverished people to the cities. Brazil and Mexico, in addition, had a substantial foreign debt, which hampered independent economic growth, and Turkey continued to depend on earnings from Turkish workers in Western Europe. All three countries thus showed various and important symptoms of incomplete industrialization, as older economic patterns and dependencies vied with genuine factory growth. Yet there was change; Mexico, Turkey, and Brazil deliberately expanded modern industry to meet internal needs and produce export earnings.
Brazil’s computer industry was a striking case in point. A nation well behind the world’s industrial leaders deliberately fostered an industry capable of serving the nation’s computer needs and so avoided yet another dependence on expensive imports. Governmental regulations protected this new Brazilian industry, and heavily subsidized computer engineers at the technical university in São Paulo constructed independent computer prototypes. Although the industry itself developed only in the 1970s, it clearly built on Brazil’s earlier commitment to industrial growth and technological progress. The engineering group at São Paulo thus stemmed from earlier advances in university science and technology, including nuclear physics; Brazil by the 1970s was producing 3 percent of the scientific articles in international physics journals. Beginning in 1959 the government had supported computer research directly, in connection with the Brazilian navy. Training in advanced electronics expanded steadily. Imports of advanced Western military equipment spurred a growing interest in computers, and collaborative programs were developed with U.S. universities. By 1971 Brazil was ready to develop its own computer model, in partial imitation of European prototypes. A variety of small companies linked to the university center in São Paulo then developed to produce computers. Brazilian computer production depended on imports of microchips from other areas, including Japan; hence, this was not an isolated national industry. But the Brazilian computer industry did demonstrate that prior technical progress, careful government sponsorship, and a growing awareness of production
solved The Reaction Paper Assignment You will be writing a 1,000
/in /by adminThe Reaction Paper Assignment
You will be writing a 1,000 word Reaction Paper in this course using the instructions and links found below. You will be completing the following tasks and gathering the following information for your paper:
Watch the epigenetics video from PBS available as a YouTube      link in this folder (second item in the folder). Begin your paper by defining epigenetics in your      own words and discussing your reaction to the video.
Interview your family members and complete the  Family History-Dr. Oz.pdf  .  Find out which      disease(s) you are most at risk for.
Research and locate one article on epigenetics and whatever      disease you are most at risk for (select a study on research conducted on      humans) from a reputable academic source:
Reputable Sources:
journal articles
government publications based on research
Do not use:
magazines of any sort, whether they are on paper or online
Websites of any type, including epigenetics websites
Wikipedia
How to Perform Your Research
Use the College Library in person or online (log in with your new MDC ID number (the one that is all numbers). Your password is the last four digits of that same MDC ID unless you have changed it.
Read the epigenetics article you find. Continue your paper with a discussion of the epigenetics article. Be sure to paraphrase (put things in your own words) and be sure to cite the author(s) of the article you find using APA style (see the section below on using APA style). Aim for about a page for this part of your paper.
Discuss the concept of epigenesis in light of your family      history and the article you read. Aim for one page for this      section of your paper.
Complete the Living to 100 Questionnaires. Integrate your findings on the      questionnaire into your discussion. Aim for another page.
Discuss how you can improve your      health and longevity in light of your findings in this questionnaire, your      understanding of epigenetics, and your knowledge of your family history.      This should be your final page.
Complete the Living to 100 Questionnaires. Integrate your findings on the questionnaire into your discussion. Aim for another page. I did the 100 questions and this are the feedbacks
Your calculated age is: 90
You could live to 103.
How to add years to your life:
Personal
+ 0.25
You noted that you don’t manage your stress as well as you could. Do a better job and you could add a quarter of a year to your life expectancy
Lifestyle
+ 2.0
If it is ok with your doctor, taking an 81 mg aspirin every day improves your heart and brain health and could help you delay or escape a heart attack or stroke. Taking an aspirin each day, perferably in the evening, could add 2 years to your life expectancy.
Nutrition
+ 5.0
Getting your weight down so that you are no longer overwieght could add an additional 5 years to your life expectancy
+ 1.0
The more you can get fast foods out of your diet the better. While you are already doing a pretty good job of doing so, completely removing fast oods from your diet could add a year to your life expectancy
+ 2.0
Changing your daily dietary intake so that you get to and maintain a healthy weight could add two years to your life expectancy
Medical
+ 1.0
Examining yourself for cancer could add a year to your life expectancy
+ 0.5
Being in touch with your health care provider annually is very important to your strategy to screen for and prevent illness. Getting the appropriate blood tests on a regular basis could add a half a year
+ 0.5
Getting your blood sugar checked could add half a year to your life expectancy
Personalized feedback from Dr Perls:
Proximity of Family
Having frequent contact with family, or friends who are like family, can be an important element of your ability to manage stress well, and is probably a life expectancy extender.
Extended family cohesiveness and frequent contact is a notable feature of centenarian families. Researchers have noted that people who do not belong to cohesive families have fewer coping resources and increased levels of social and psychological stress. Psychological stress is associated with heart disease, various cancers, and increased mortality risk.
How Do You Cope With Stress?
Keep up the good work. Doing your best to better manage your stress will positively impact many aspects of your emotional and physical health. Consider numerous options in better managing your stress. Take a deep breath the next time you are stressed. Step back for a moment, knowing that shedding the stress will be a better immediate way of dealing with the matter. Long-term, it will help you delay or even avoid illnesses such as heart disease, stroke, cancer, and Alzheimer’s disease. Try to learn methods that help you shed stress instead of internalizing it, such as Tai Chi, breathing techniques, meditation, physical exercise, and prayer.
Centenarians shed emotional stress exceptionally well. Their stress-shedding personalities, and the familial support which they receive and contribute to, are important stress-reducing mechanisms.
Sleep Habits
It is terrific that you are getting adequate and quality sleep. Adequate sleep is also a sign of good health.
Days of Work per week
A recent Japanese study of the relationship between work hours and heart attack risk reveled that men who worked, on average, 11 hours or more a day had twice the risk of heart attack. Interestingly though, is that those who worked less than 7 hours a day were also at increased risk. If you find your current workload comfortable and that you are taking advantage of your leisure time to perform healthy and enjoyable activities, good for you and keep up the good work!
Quality of Air
The good news is that cities are cleaner now than they were even ten years ago. The bad news is that you are still exposed to air pollution. If you are experiencing new respiratory symptoms and you don’t smoke, consider air pollution as a potential cause and discuss this with your physician or a specialist. Don’t go out exerting yourself when smog alerts are in effect.
Seatbelt Use
You probably know the statistics about survival from a car crash with a seatbelt versus without one. Wearing a seatbelt, even in the presence of an airbag, dramatically increases your chances of minimizing injury or surviving a serious car accident. Continue to be diligent about wearing your seatbelt.
Coffee Consumption
Whatever your reason for not drinking coffee, it definitely has you on the right track. Don’t start, because it is much harder to stop the habit once you pick it up.
Excessive coffee consumption can be a sign of increased stress. Stress can lead to a hormonal imbalance, which can physically stress and age numerous organs. In addition, coffee predisposes the stomach to chronic inflammation of the stomach and ulcers. Such chronic inflammation leads to release of substances that raise the risk of heart disease. Tea (especially green tea), on the other hand, has been noted for its significant antioxidant content, and tea drinkers in general appear to be healthier.
Tea Consumption
Try to give tea a chance. You may find that it grows on you. Regular tea consumption is a healthy habit that may actually be life-extending. The antioxidants in tea may decrease your risk of heart disease and cancer.
Tea contains a powerful class of antioxidants known as polyphenols. It is controversial whether green tea has more bioavailable polyphenols than black tea. Either way, however, you can’t go wrong with tea.
Smoking Habits
By not smoking or being exposed to substantial second-hand smoke, you are avoiding a prevalent cause of people dying in their 70s and earlier. 400,000 deaths per year are attributed to smoking, and many more people suffer from smoking-related diseases each year.
Cigarette smoke contains toxins which directly damage DNA and subsequently cause cancer. Cigarettes are the biggest direct source of nitro amines humans are exposed to. These substances, along with other constituents of cigarette smoke, are potent oxidants and carcinogens that lead to accelerated aging and diseases associated with aging. Each day, nearly 5,000 adolescents (age 11-17) smoke their first cigarettes. Almost two million teens annually, and approximately one-third of those that become smokers, will eventually die of smoking-related illnesses. Helpful internet sites include Quitnet and the American Lung Association.
Second-hand Smoke Exposure
Avoiding second-hand smoke is a very important habit. Because second-hand smoke is even more toxic than the filtered smoke that smokers inhale, it takes less of a “dose” or exposure to be toxic to your lungs and your body in general. Such exposure is clearly a substantial cause of cancer, heart disease, asthma and other lung diseases. Thus, keep avoiding second-hand smoke as you have been doing.
Alcohol Consumption
A moderate amount of alcohol consumption, as you have indicated, may be healthy and possibly reduces your risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke. There is substantial evidence suggesting that mild to moderate alcohol consumption can be good for you. One study suggests that even a little more frequent consumption (one glass a day) might be good for you. However, some people cannot tolerate even a small amount of alcohol for medical or other reasons. Discuss your intake with your healthcare provider.
Moderate alcohol consumption has been associated with decreased heart disease risk. This may be one explanation for the so-called “”French paradox””. The French are known for their love of foods high in saturated fat, yet their heart disease risks may be lower than those of Americans (except in the case of those who smoke cigarettes), perhaps because of the higher consumption of wine by the French. Significant controversy revolves around what types of alcohol (wine, beer, or liquor) may have this benefit.
Remember that on the other hand, excessive alcohol is a toxin, which damages the liver and the mitochondria within most cells of the body. This leads to acceleration of aging, and increased susceptibility to many diseases associated with aging.
Aspirin consumption
Perhaps you cannot tolerate an aspirin a day because it hurts your stomach or you have a propensity for bleeding. On the other hand, if you don’t have a reason not to take aspirin, consider taking one daily.
81 mg of aspirin per day has been noted to significantly decrease heart disease risk. This benefit may be due to the anti-blood clotting effects of aspirin. Chronic inflammation may also play a role in heart disease (see 11, below) and therefore, aspirin’s effect on inflammation may also be helpful. For more information, consult the findings of the American Heart Association.
Sun Protection Habits
You are doing a good job protecting yourself from the sun, and therefore from accelerated aging of your skin, as well as from deadly skin cancers such as melanoma. But just because you do protect yourself does not mean you should not have a regular skin (dermatology) check-up and perform a monthly self-examination of your skin.
The association between sun exposure and accelerated skin aging is clear. The ultraviolet rays in sunlight directly damage DNA. More sun means more wrinkles sooner. It also means a higher risk of deadly skin cancer. Excessive sun exposure may also have toxic consequences for the body in general. For guidance on a self-exam, see skincheck.com .
Risky Behaviors
You are exercising good judgment. Viruses such as HIV, which are transmitted by risky behavior, not only cause AIDS but also various cancers including lymphoma. These viruses change DNA, and as a result probably influence aging as well. For more information, go to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Online or Advocates for Youth.
Flossing Habits
Keep flossing away! Not only does it improve your chances of longer kisses, but it improves your heart health as well.
Recent scientific evidence reveals that chronic gum disease leads to the release of inflammatory, toxic substances and certain bacteria into the bloodstream, which leads to plaque formation in arteries and ultimately lead to heart disease. This process probably also increases the risk of stroke and accelerated aging. For more information, consult the findings of the American Dental Association.
BMI
Your calculated body mass index indicates that you are significantly overweight. If you are in fact lean, and this calculation is off because of your greater-than-expected amount of muscle, perhaps you should have answered “yes” to the body building/strength training question, and you should add a few years to your calculated life expectancy.
If, to be honest, you are overweight, then you should do what you can to get down to a lean (as little fat as possible) body weight. Being overweight significantly increases your risk for diseases that markedly impact your life expectancy, including heart trouble, diabetes, high blood pressure, cancer, stroke, and dementia. Set aside at least 30 minutes a day to exercise, and be on a diet that will lead to losing some weight (by burning more calories than you take in) and eventually maintaining a life expectancy-maximizing weight.
As you age, you may find it even more challenging to keep the weight off. You will find, if you aren’t doing it already, that getting into a regular regimen of weight training to maintain or build muscle mass will be very effective in keeping the weight off. Of course, diet is also important, and lowering your consumption of carbohydrates is helpful. Diet advice is covered by the questions related to carbohydrates and sweets.
Fast Food and Processed Meat Consumption
Fast foods, including fried foods and hamburgers, are high in calories and saturated fats. These will make you gain weight, and they increase your risk for heart disease, stroke, and perhaps cancer. Some studies suggest that 90% of all human cancers are environmentally induced, 30-40% of these by diet. Another potential risk factor for cancer is preserved meats. Preserved and cured meats (bacon, sausage, lunch meats) are the largest source of nitrites in our diet. Nitrites in our bodies lead to the formation of nitrosamines, which are environmental oxidants and probable carcinogens. For instance, there is a suggestive association between nitrosamines and stomach cancer.
Barbecue Habits
Not barbecuing your food helps you avoid the carcinogens that can develop as a result of cooking meat and fish at very high heat. If you would like to barbecue, using a sheet of aluminum foil on the grill will help decrease the food’s exposure to such protein-altering high heat.
Dairy Consumption
Continue to do your best to ensure that you are getting plenty of calcium from your diet, and if needed, from a vitamin or calcium supplement. The recommended daily calcium intake is 1,000 – 1,500 mg per day. Adequate calcium intake in later life can slow the bone loss associated with aging. In addition to dairy products, calcium-fortified juices, breads, and cereals are excellent sources, as are supplements like TUMS and over-the-counter calcium supplements.
In addition, be sure that you have enough vitamin D in your diet. Vitamin D is necessary for the body to absorb the calcium we get in our diets. Most milk is fortified with vitamin D, and our bodies also make it when our skin is exposed to 15 to 20 minutes of sunlight daily. People who rarely go outside are prone to vitamin D deficiency.
Large quantities of salty foods and meat can significantly increase the amount of calcium lost in the urine. Adequate calcium intake may not prevent the accelerated bone loss in women caused by estrogen deficiency during and for several years after menopause. Some foods high in calcium also contain oxalic acid, which interferes with calcium absorption. Spinach is such a food.
Snacking Habits
Good job… the snacks you are eating are at least healthy. Be careful that you don’t eat too much though, as this can lead to weight gain. Be mindful of the number of calories in the foods you eat, and try to not exceed a healthy number of calories per day.
Nutrition experts vary on the benefits of snacking. Some say that eating 6 small meals a day is better than three big meals. Others suggest the opposite. You should choose a dietary habit that works best for you with the goal of not being overweight. Certainly, if you do snack, be sure they are healthy snacks. Most sweets have little (if any) nutritional value, and because they tend to be so calorie-rich from fats, they will certainly predispose you to being overweight. Switch from those unhealthy snacks to healthy ones. Then, consider if the snacks are helping you maintain a lean body mass or not.
Fast Food and Processed Meat Consumption
Good for you. A diet that minimizes red meat is healthier. Less meat in the diet is conducive to a lower risk of heart disease, heart attack, and stroke. Furthermore, foods that replace meat in a person’s diet are often sources of antioxidants (especially the polyphenols in certain vegetables and fruits, and the omega-3 fatty acids in fish), that help lower LDL cholesterol and raise HDL cholesterol.
When weighed against vegetables and fish or skinless poultry, red meat loses out when it comes to your health. The American Heart Association recommends a diet that minimizes meat and emphasizes these alternatives. Vegetarian dishes, in addition to being an alternative to meat, also have antioxidants that protect the heart and brain. Fish contains omega-3 fatty acids, which help you raise your good cholesterol (HDL) and lower your bad cholesterol, (LDL) thus decreasing your risk for heart attack and stroke.
Interestingly, the vascular risk associated with red meat may be related to the fact that it is the major source of iron in our diet. The iron present in vegetables like spinach is relatively bio-unavailable. As you will read in greater detail under the topic of iron supplements, iron plays a critical role in our cells’ ability to produce harmful free radicals that likely potentiate aging and age-related illnesses.
Consumption of Sweets
You are doing much better than the average person in demonstrating restraint from eating those desserts and candy bars. These foods are high in saturated fats and calories. Both predispose you for weight gain, heart disease, stroke and diabetes. By helping you become obese, they increase your risk of various cancers.
These foods have little in the way of nutritional value. By staying away from them, anyone will make great gains in their life expectancy and the proportion of their lives spent in good health.
Consumption of Carbohydrates
You are likely eating too many carbs. Not only is the number of calories you eat important, but the type of calories is important as well. Grains, pastas, fruits, and starchy vegetables like potatoes are the most common carbohydrate foods. Simple carbohydrates like white bread, potatoes (especially French fries), pasta, white rice, and sugar cause the body to produce insulin in response to elevated levels of glucose in the blood. The insulin in turn induces the storage of fat, instead of burning it. Other foods like fats, protein, and more complex carbohydrates, like whole grains and fiber are less likely to turn on the production of insulin.
The glycemic index is a ranking of foods based on their immediate effect on blood glucose (blood sugar) levels, and thus the production of insulin. Carbohydrate foods that break down quickly during digestion have the highest glycemic indexes, causing blood sugar and insulin to rise fast and high. Carbohydrates that break down slowly, releasing glucose gradually into the bloodstream, have low glycemic indexes. The lower the glycemic index, the less likely that food is going to contribute to the production of fat. There are numerous books and websites that provide the glycemic indexes for foods and drinks. However, the general food groups noted above are a good start in your education.
Diet and Weight Gain
Obesity is associated with inefficient energy production, and increased production of oxygen radicals within cells. This leads to increased risk of various cancers, heart disease, and accelerated aging. It may also lead to diabetes.
Cutting down on the amount you eat is one of the most important interventions you can do to have a dramatic impact on your health. For many people, eating too much is the main reason they are overweight.
For others, it is more difficult than just not eating so much, and a consultation with a diet expert may be warranted. Be conscientious about how much you eat. Become a calorie counter. Don’t eat until you are full – stop before you get there.
There are also several helpful websites on the internet that are dedicated to helping people lose weight and maintain a healthy weight, such as Shape Up America!.
Iron Consumption
It is probably good to stay away from iron supplements and iron-rich foods – specifically red meat – if you can. There is growing evidence from animal and human studies that iron levels are related to aging and age-associated diseases. Some epidemiological evidence supports the role of elevated iron levels in lipid peroxidation, the first step in the formation of atherosclerosis (arterial plaque).
Menstrual blood loss and resultant iron deficiency might protect against vascular disease, and may even contribute to the premenopausal survival advantage of women over men. Some men may be able to reduce their risk of vascular diseases by regularly donating blood, which could induce an iron deficiency. Blood donation has been associated with a decreased risk of arterial plaque. Further studies are needed to determine additional cardiovascular benefits or risks associated with blood donation.
Leisure Time Activity
It is great that you engange in physical activity during your leisure time. A recent study of English twins found that couch potatoes take off about ten years from their life expectancy.
Bowel Habits
Having a bowel movement at least once every two days may be associated with decreased risk of colon cancer.
Keeping “gut transit time” under 20 hours seems to decrease the incidence of colon cancer, probably by decreasing the contact time between the gut lining and cancer-potentiating substances in the diet. These substances influence DNA damage and repair, and therefore probably influence the rate of aging as well. Epidemiological studies of humans and animals suggest that increasing dietary fiber will reduce the risk of certain cancers, perhaps by increasing the frequency of bowel movements. On the other hand, some recent reports indicate that the association may not be as clear as once believed. In addition to increased transit time, and therefore less contact between carcinogens and the bowel wall, perhaps other factors that increase transit time, such as regular exercise, might be the real reason for decreased cancer risk.
HDL Cholesterol
Not knowing your HDL level should be considered a risk factor for heart disease and stroke. It means you are not availing yourself of some key information to decrease your risk for these diseases.
HDL cholesterol is known as “”good”” cholesterol because a high level of HDL cholesterol appears to protect against heart attack. Medical experts think that HDL tends to carry cholesterol away from the arteries and back to the liver, where it is processed, dumped in the intestine, and then passed from the body. Some experts believe that excess cholesterol is removed from atherosclerotic plaque by HDL, thus slowing the build-up. However, HDL cholesterol levels lower than 35 mg/dL may result in a greater risk for heart disease and stroke. For more information about cholesterol including other risk factors and treatment, refer to the American Heart Association.
LDL Cholesterol
It is apparent you are interested in your health and well-being because you are taking this calculator. Now you need to take the next steps, including diligent screening. Get your cardiovascular disease risk factors checked, including your LDL cholesterol level.
A level of LDL cholesterol (low-density lipoprotein) higher than 130 mg/dL reflects an increased risk of heart attack and stroke. That’s why LDL cholesterol is often called “”bad”” cholesterol. When too much LDL cholesterol circulates in the blood, it can lead to the formation of plaque in the blood vessels that feed the heart and the brain. With enough of this blockage, a heart attack or stroke can occur. To learn more about risk factors you can modify, refer to the American Heart Association.
Systolic blood pressure
A systolic blood pressure of 120 to 129 is called “pre-hypertension”. You and your healthcare provider need to keep on eye on this. Try to get your pressure down with weight loss (if you are overweight), a healthy diet, stress management, and exercise. If your pressure continues to increase, you may need to bring it down with medication.
Blood pressure results from two forces. The first force is created as your heart pumps blood into the arteries and through the circulatory system, and this is the systolic pressure. The second force is created as the arteries resist the blood flow, and this is the diastolic pressure. A systolic blood pressure greater than 140 is considered high, meaning that the person is at increased risk for heart attack and stroke. The risk climbs thereafter in proportion to the pressure.
Diastolic blood pressure
You have a good diastolic blood pressure. Centenarians generally have a history of a diastolic blood pressure in this range for most of their lives.
Diabetes and Blood Sugar
Of course, it is great that you don’t have diabetes. Like high blood pressure, a person can have diabetes for a long time and not know it. Thus it is very important that children and adults are regularly screened. Get your blood sugar checked at least every three years, and watch for some of the common symptoms of diabetes, including excessive and persistent thirst, unexplained weight loss, and voiding large amounts of urine frequently despite normal amounts of fluid intake Take the American Diabetes Association’s risk test. You can lower your risk by losing weight if you are overweight.
Diabetes occurs because a person’s body does not make enough insulin, and/or because the cells in their body are relatively resistant to the insulin they produce. As a result, diabetics can have large amounts of glucose in their circulation. By far the most common form of diabetes is adult onset or Type II diabetes, and this is often associated with obesity. This form is often well-controlled (meaning the blood glucose level is kept normal) with weight loss, diet, and/or oral medication. Sometimes insulin injections are necessary. Another form of diabetes is called juvenile or Type I diabetes, which more often occurs in children and requires insulin injections. The good news is that people are living long, productive and basically otherwise normal lives given the excellent treatments available.
Heart Attack History
Having no history of heart attack is very good, of course. Now, do all you can to minimize your risk for one by not smoking, exercising regularly, avoiding red meat, managing your stress well, being lean, and monitoring your blood pressure and cholesterol. Also, consider taking an aspirin a day if your healthcare provider says this is a good idea.
Medical Checkups
Regular checkups are so important. How often you need a checkup depends on your age and any medical or other clinically relevant problems you might have. Generally, anyone age 40 or older should be having annual checkups. A conscientious program of screening and prevention is key to living into old age in good health.
Family History of Heart Attack/Diabetes
Heart attack or diabetes appear to be present in your family. If you yourself do not have diabetes or have not had a heart attack, this is a warning to you to be extra diligent about screening for risk factors that make diabetes, heart attack, and stroke more likely, and to do what you can to prevent them.
Family History of Cancer
Your family history is warning you to be extra diligent about screening for various cancers, and to do what you can to prevent them. Speak with your healthcare provider about what you can do to screen for cancer, and catch it before it catches you!
Mother’s Longevity
It is great that your mom is healthy. Given that she is younger than 80, though, it is a bit hard to predict her longevity and form an idea of the longevity in your family.
Father’s Longevity
It is great that your dad is healthy. Given that he is younger than 80, though, it is a bit hard to predict his longevity and form an idea of the longevity in your family.
Ancestors’ Longevity
Genetics plays a significant role in the ability to achieve extreme old age. If there is no significant longevity in your family, then be extra diligent about good health
solved Your second Reaction Paper is aimed at evaluating what you
/in /by adminYour second Reaction Paper is aimed at evaluating what you have learned about Ethics and Politics and how they fit together. Â After coming to understand the ethical theories of the thinkers we studied in the Ethics module, and the thinkers we studied in the Political Science module, you should be able to see some fundamental similarities and differences. Â For example, you may find that a person’s ethical or political perspective is formed by an underlying vision of human nature. Â That means that human nature is even more fundamental that the ethical and political theories we looked at – and may be a field in which we can connect them. Â In fact, you may begin to notice that, given a particular view of human nature, one will gravitate toward an ethical and political system that line up. Â If one believes that people are rational and can control themselves, then they will tend to accept an ethical system that prioritizes individual development – and also a political system which allows for lots of liberty. Â In other words, you might find that one of the ethical theories we studied, connects with, matches or lines up with a political theory. Â A political theory tries to provide “what is truly good for the whole,” but must rely on an understanding “what is truly good,” or ethics, in the first place. Â With this in mind, react to the following prompt:
Consider the three ethical systems we studied in the course, and the three political theories. Â Find a natural “pair” – that is, an ethical system that leads to a corresponding political one. Â In other words, choose from among group A (Ethics) and group B (Political Science) to see the best example of one of group A matching one in group B.
I want to see how well you can evaluate the assigned material, so make sure that you engage the texts, quote the texts and think about them from the inside so that your connection is a well informed one. Your comparison should be based on significant aspects of the theories, not superficial ones.
DO NOT CONSULT OUTSIDE SOURCES OR MATERIAL IN THE TEXT WE HAVE NOT COVERED IN THESE TWO PARTICULAR MODULES (ETHICS AND POLITICS). Â Choose thinkers whom we have studied in the modules, not just anyone in the text.Â
Make sure to read the Rubric, the “Reaction Paper Expectation and Guidance” page from the first Module, as well as the parts of the syllabus which provide advice on how to write your paper so you get the most information you can to be as successful as you can.As a reminder – here is the advice that the syllabus stated:
Reaction Papers: Â You will be asked to write short summary papers of about 3 – 5 pages in length which will test your understanding of a given topic after you have read it, been quizzed on it, and discussed it. Â You are therefore expected to be an “expert” on the material by the time you begin to write, and will be pulling things together on the assumption that you understand the pieces. Â They are thus intended to encourage you to keep thinking about and coming to understand a topic over a longer period of development. Â These papers will be graded on both style and content. Â The former will include things like how well it reads, how clear it is, and whether it is organized and structured. Â The latter is basically how well you engage the text. Â Â By “engaging the text” I mean that you should let the text talk for you – that is, develop your opinions from the thinker’s ideas. Â It is more important in this course to grapple with the ideas of the thinkers than express your own opinions. Â The latter is, of course, easier – but the point of this course is for you to deal with new ideas. Â It is great to make connections to your own perspectives, but first and foremost you want to demonstrate that you have read and understood the text. Â That is the major thing I am looking for – the footprint of the text in your paper. Â So, it is important to be able to understand the material and to express that understanding clearly. Â If you are not good at writing short essays, you should seek additional help. Â The point of my lectures is to explicate the text, and to help you to understand what you read, but do not quote them or refer to them – refer to the text in your paper. Â Hence, for the best grade, the papers must include references to the text (a quote a two) and must not refer to what I have said in class. Â
Section Goals – Political Science
In this module we will be looking at the principles that found political systems. There are many forms of government out there, and they are all based on some fundamental ideas about “good,” human nature, and who “the people” are. We will look at 3 theories here, but again, there are more. We are looking at: (1) Monarchy with Thomas Hobbes, (2) Liberal Democracy with James Madison and John Stuart Mill, and (3) Communism with Karl Marx.
Here is a video which explains Plato’s idea of the “Degeneration of Regimes” from BK VIII of the Republic. It is a great model to understand the relation between human nature (the soul) and political systems (regimes) and hence a good way to generally introduce a discussion on different perspectives of political science:
Play media comment.
Assigned Sources:
1. Hobbes’ Leviathan (and video)
2. Mill’s On LIberty, and Madison’s Federalist 10 (and video)
3. Marx’s Communist Manifesto (and video)
Things to notice:
These three theories are quite different because they have a different view of what people are really like, and consequently what a government must do. If one does not trust people, they are likely to have a Hobbesian view of things and will have recourse to a strong police force to keep people in line – perhaps even constant surveillance. If one accepts that people will always be in different groups which are at odds with each other, then Madison’s idea of setting the groups against each other so that no one can take over makes sense. Finally, if one believes that the rich will get richer, and that corporate profits will come at the expense of society, the worker, the environment etc, then one might agree with Marx and hold that industry should be controlled by the people rather than the rich. All in all, notice how one’s fundamental attitude toward what comprises the “good life” and what people are naturally like will inform one’s political perspective.
What is Political Science?
Political science is the body of knowledge which deals with the proper ordering of cities. In other words, it asks the questions of how to organize people into communities. Needless to say, there are many ideas as to the best way to govern people, so Political Science is the process of arguing which is the best of possible ways. Here we will look at a few of the many perspectives on the best form of political organization.
For the most part, a political philosophy can be traced back to a perspective of human nature. That is, one must have an understanding of what people are and what they are like in order to lead or organize them. We will look at 3 different perspectives here. We will look at Hobbes, who advocated that people are essentially selfish and violent and for that reason needed a strong king to keep them in order. Next, we will look at Neitszche who believed that there were essentially two types of nature – the noble and the slave, and that the noble possessed the strength and creative power of a society. As a result, he advocated for an aristocratic form of government which allowed the noble class to lead the rest. Mill, and the Founders tended to believe that people should be considered as essentially autonomous bearers of rights and, consequently, that societies should be organized as to allow the greatest liberty as possible.
Here is a video on Justice – which is the foundation of any political system. It is a great introduction to the debate about which form of justice should be the central priority of a political system:
What Is Justice?: Crash Course Philosophy #40 (Links to an external site.)
The Case for Monarchy (Hobbes)
The Problem: People are selfish, greedy and violent and will only get along when someone more powerful makes them
The Solution: Absolute Monarchy – a system of one person rule, where that person has absolute power
Brief Overview: Thomas Hobbes lived in a time in which order was challenged in a profusion religious and political revolutions. His view of human nature consequently tended to be rather pessimistic. He believed that people are motivated for the most part by self interest and so the only successful government would be one that used the selfishness of people to bind them together. In the passages from the Leviathan that we will be looking at, Hobbes first discusses his notion of human nature, and later applied that nature to the idea of a commonwealth. It is important to understand what he thought about the role of reason in human behavior and what truly motivated people to act. This understanding is what led to his opinion that a strong monarchy was needed.
Key Passages in Hobbes’ Leviathan:
Part One
p. 562 – Introduction – man as machine and nature of “commonwealthâ€
p. 568 – Ch.V Sec.1-2 – nature of human reason
p. 572 – Ch. VI Sec. 2-3, 7 – the appetites and their role in assigning “goodâ€
p. 577 – Ch. XIII – how equality leads to violence
p. 579 – Ch. XIV Sec.1-9 – natural rights and laws
Part Two
p. 590 – Ch.XVII Sec. 1 – point of a commonwealth and how men are restrained
p. 591 – Sec. 13 – the power that founds and constitutes a commonwealth
The Case for a Liberal Republic (Mill and Madison)
The Problem: Republics are the best form of government (to the Founders) but they are unstable and lead to faction and civil war
The Solution: Assume that people will always be in warring factions, but pit them against each other so no one particular one can take over and take away the freedom of the others.
Brief Overview: The idea of “republic” is based on the belief that people are more or less equal and can come together to rule themselves. “Liberty,” which informs the Liberal Republic, was generally meant to convey the idea that when people are as free as possible from the intellectual, religious and political constraints over them, they are more likely to choose types of government that are best for their flourishing. John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty very succinctly lays out the main ideas behind Liberal rights, and it is quite short. Also, some of the writing of James Madison, especially Federalist 10, provide an American perspective on Liberty and the good ordering of a state.
This PDF is your reading for this module: James Madison’s Federalist 10 (click on link) (Links to an external site.)
Here is a version in which I have numbered the paragraphs and pages for easier reference: Fed10AnnotatedÂ
download
The John Stuart Mill selection is in the text. It is “On Liberty” (p.1220-1222)
Both of these passages are relatively short and straight forward. Read them carefully and for questions, visit the Informal Discussion Forum.
Scroll to the bottom of this page – under the Fed 10 screen version there are a few videos
In case the above link is not working…here is Federalist 10:
|| Federalist No. 10 ||
The Same Subject Continued: The Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection
From the New York Packet.
Friday, November 23, 1787.
Author: James Madison
To the People of the State of New York:
AMONG the numerous advantages promised by a well-constructed Union, none deserves to be more accurately developed than its tendency to break and control the violence of faction. The friend of popular governments never finds himself so much alarmed for their character and fate, as when he contemplates their propensity to this dangerous vice. He will not fail, therefore, to set a due value on any plan which, without violating the principles to which he is attached, provides a proper cure for it. The instability, injustice, and confusion introduced into the public councils, have, in truth, been the mortal diseases under which popular governments have everywhere perished; as they continue to be the favorite and fruitful topics from which the adversaries to liberty derive their most specious declamations. The valuable improvements made by the American constitutions on the popular models, both ancient and modern, cannot certainly be too much admired; but it would be an unwarrantable partiality, to contend that they have as effectually obviated the danger on this side, as was wished and expected. Complaints are everywhere heard from our most considerate and virtuous citizens, equally the friends of public and private faith, and of public and personal liberty, that our governments are too unstable, that the public good is disregarded in the conflicts of rival parties, and that measures are too often decided, not according to the rules of justice and the rights of the minor party, but by the superior force of an interested and overbearing majority. However anxiously we may wish that these complaints had no foundation, the evidence, of known facts will not permit us to deny that they are in some degree true. It will be found, indeed, on a candid review of our situation, that some of the distresses under which we labor have been erroneously charged on the operation of our governments; but it will be found, at the same time, that other causes will not alone account for many of our heaviest misfortunes; and, particularly, for that prevailing and increasing distrust of public engagements, and alarm for private rights, which are echoed from one end of the continent to the other. These must be chiefly, if not wholly, effects of the unsteadiness and injustice with which a factious spirit has tainted our public administrations.
By a faction, I understand a number of citizens, whether amounting to a majority or a minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adversed to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community.
There are two methods of curing the mischiefs of faction: the one, by removing its causes; the other, by controlling its effects.
There are again two methods of removing the causes of faction: the one, by destroying the liberty which is essential to its existence; the other, by giving to every citizen the same opinions, the same passions, and the same interests.
It could never be more truly said than of the first remedy, that it was worse than the disease. Liberty is to faction what air is to fire, an aliment without which it instantly expires. But it could not be less folly to abolish liberty, which is essential to political life, because it nourishes faction, than it would be to wish the annihilation of air, which is essential to animal life, because it imparts to fire its destructive agency.
The second expedient is as impracticable as the first would be unwise. As long as the reason of man continues fallible, and he is at liberty to exercise it, different opinions will be formed. As long as the connection subsists between his reason and his self-love, his opinions and his passions will have a reciprocal influence on each other; and the former will be objects to which the latter will attach themselves. The diversity in the faculties of men, from which the rights of property originate, is not less an insuperable obstacle to a uniformity of interests. The protection of these faculties is the first object of government. From the protection of different and unequal faculties of acquiring property, the possession of different degrees and kinds of property immediately results; and from the influence of these on the sentiments and views of the respective proprietors, ensues a division of the society into different interests and parties.
The latent causes of faction are thus sown in the nature of man; and we see them everywhere brought into different degrees of activity, according to the different circumstances of civil society. A zeal for different opinions concerning religion, concerning government, and many other points, as well of speculation as of practice; an attachment to different leaders ambitiously contending for pre-eminence and power; or to persons of other descriptions whose fortunes have been interesting to the human passions, have, in turn, divided mankind into parties, inflamed them with mutual animosity, and rendered them much more disposed to vex and oppress each other than to co-operate for their common good. So strong is this propensity of mankind to fall into mutual animosities, that where no substantial occasion presents itself, the most frivolous and fanciful distinctions have been sufficient to kindle their unfriendly passions and excite their most violent conflicts. But the most common and durable source of factions has been the various and unequal distribution of property. Those who hold and those who are without property have ever formed distinct interests in society. Those who are creditors, and those who are debtors, fall under a like discrimination. A landed interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest, with many lesser interests, grow up of necessity in civilized nations, and divide them into different classes, actuated by different sentiments and views. The regulation of these various and interfering interests forms the principal task of modern legislation, and involves the spirit of party and faction in the necessary and ordinary operations of the government.
No man is allowed to be a judge in his own cause, because his interest would certainly bias his judgment, and, not improbably, corrupt his integrity. With equal, nay with greater reason, a body of men are unfit to be both judges and parties at the same time; yet what are many of the most important acts of legislation, but so many judicial determinations, not indeed concerning the rights of single persons, but concerning the rights of large bodies of citizens? And what are the different classes of legislators but advocates and parties to the causes which they determine? Is a law proposed concerning private debts? It is a question to which the creditors are parties on one side and the debtors on the other. Justice ought to hold the balance between them. Yet the parties are, and must be, themselves the judges; and the most numerous party, or, in other words, the most powerful faction must be expected to prevail. Shall domestic manufactures be encouraged, and in what degree, by restrictions on foreign manufactures? are questions which would be differently decided by the landed and the manufacturing classes, and probably by neither with a sole regard to justice and the public good. The apportionment of taxes on the various descriptions of property is an act which seems to require the most exact impartiality; yet there is, perhaps, no legislative act in which greater opportunity and temptation are given to a predominant party to trample on the rules of justice. Every shilling with which they overburden the inferior number, is a shilling saved to their own pockets.
It is in vain to say that enlightened statesmen will be able to adjust these clashing interests, and render them all subservient to the public good. Enlightened statesmen will not always be at the helm. Nor, in many cases, can such an adjustment be made at all without taking into view indirect and remote considerations, which will rarely prevail over the immediate interest which one party may find in disregarding the rights of another or the good of the whole.
The inference to which we are brought is, that the CAUSES of faction cannot be removed, and that relief is only to be sought in the means of controlling its EFFECTS.
If a faction consists of less than a majority, relief is supplied by the republican principle, which enables the majority to defeat its sinister views by regular vote. It may clog the administration, it may convulse the society; but it will be unable to execute and mask its violence under the forms of the Constitution. When a majority is included in a faction, the form of popular government, on the other hand, enables it to sacrifice to its ruling passion or interest both the public good and the rights of other citizens. To secure the public good and private rights against the danger of such a faction, and at the same time to preserve the spirit and the form of popular government, is then the great object to which our inquiries are directed. Let me add that it is the great desideratum by which this form of government can be rescued from the opprobrium under which it has so long labored, and be recommended to the esteem and adoption of mankind.
By what means is this object attainable? Evidently by one of two only. Either the existence of the same passion or interest in a majority at the same time must be prevented, or the majority, having such coexistent passion or interest, must be rendered, by their number and local situation, unable to concert and carry into effect schemes of oppression. If the impulse and the opportunity be suffered to coincide, we well know that neither moral nor religious motives can be relied on as an adequate control. They are not found to be such on the injustice and violence of individuals, and lose their efficacy in proportion to the number combined together, that is, in proportion as their efficacy becomes needful.
From this view of the subject it may be concluded that a pure democracy, by which I mean a society consisting of a small number of citizens, who assemble and administer the government in person, can admit of no cure for the mischiefs of faction. A common passion or interest will, in almost every case, be felt by a majority of the whole; a communication and concert result from the form of government itself; and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the weaker party or an obnoxious individual. Hence it is that such democracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and contention; have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of property; and have in general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths. Theoretic politicians, who have patronized this species of government, have erroneously supposed that by reducing mankind to a perfect equality in their political rights, they would, at the same time, be perfectly equalized and assimilated in their possessions, their opinions, and their passions.
A republic, by which I mean a government in which the scheme of representation takes place, opens a different prospect, and promises the cure for which we are seeking. Let us examine the points in which it varies from pure democracy, and we shall comprehend both the nature of the cure and the efficacy which it must derive from the Union.
The two great points of difference between a democracy and a republic are: first, the delegation of the government, in the latter, to a small number of citizens elected by the rest; secondly, the greater number of citizens, and greater sphere of country, over which the latter may be extended.
The effect of the first difference is, on the one hand, to refine and enlarge the public views, by passing them through the medium of a chosen body of citizens, whose wisdom may best discern the true interest of their country, and whose patriotism and love of justice will be least likely to sacrifice it to temporary or partial considerations. Under such a regulation, it may well happen that the public voice, pronounced by the representatives of the people, will be more consonant to the public good than if pronounced by the people themselves, convened for the purpose. On the other hand, the effect may be inverted. Men of factious tempers, of local prejudices, or of sinister designs, may, by intrigue, by corruption, or by other means, first obtain the suffrages, and then betray the interests, of the people. The question resulting is, whether small or extensive republics are more favorable to the election of proper guardians of the public weal; and it is clearly decided in favor of the latter by two obvious considerations:
In the first place, it is to be remarked that, however small the republic may be, the representatives must be raised to a certain number, in order to guard against the cabals of a few; and that, however large it may be, they must be limited to a certain number, in order to guard against the confusion of a multitude. Hence, the number of representatives in the two cases not being in proportion to that of the two constituents, and being proportionally greater in the small republic, it follows that, if the proportion of fit characters be not less in the large than in the small republic, the former will present a greater option, and consequently a greater probability of a fit choice.
In the next place, as each representative will be chosen by a greater number of citizens in the large than in the small republic, it will be more difficult for unworthy candidates to practice with success the vicious arts by which elections are too often carried; and the suffrages of the people being more free, will be more likely to centre in men who possess the most attractive merit and the most diffusive and established characters.
It must be confessed that in this, as in most other cases, there is a mean, on both sides of which inconveniences will be found to lie. By enlarging too much the number of electors, you render the representatives too little acquainted with all their local circumstances and lesser interests; as by reducing it too much, you render him unduly attached to these, and too little fit to comprehend and pursue great and national objects. The federal Constitution forms a happy combination in this respect; the great and aggregate interests being referred to the national, the local and particular to the State legislatures.
The other point of difference is, the greater number of citizens and extent of territory which may be brought within the compass of republican than of democratic government; and it is this circumstance principally which renders factious combinations less to be dreaded in the former than in the latter. The smaller the society, the fewer probably will be the distinct parties and interests composing it; the fewer the distinct parties and interests, the more frequently will a majority be found of the same party; and the smaller the number of individuals composing a majority, and the smaller the compass within which they are placed, the more easily will they concert and execute their plans of oppression. Extend the sphere, and you take in a greater variety of parties and interests; you make it less probable that a majority of the whole will have a common motive to invade the rights of other citizens; or if such a common motive exists, it will be more difficult for all who feel it to discover their own strength, and to act in unison with each other. Besides other impediments, it may be remarked that, where there is a consciousness of unjust or dishonorable purposes, communication is always checked by distrust in proportion to the number whose concurrence is necessary.
Hence, it clearly appears, that the same advantage which a republic has over a democracy, in controlling the effects of faction, is enjoyed by a large over a small republic,–is enjoyed by the Union over the States composing it. Does the advantage consist in the substitution of representatives whose enlightened views and virtuous sentiments render them superior to local prejudices and schemes of injustice? It will not be denied that the representation of the Union will be most likely to possess these requisite endowments. Does it consist in the greater security afforded by a greater variety of parties, against the event of any one party being able to outnumber and oppress the rest? In an equal degree does the increased variety of parties comprised within the Union, increase this security. Does it, in fine, consist in the greater obstacles opposed to the concert and accomplishment of the secret wishes of an unjust and interested majority? Here, again, the extent of the Union gives it the most palpable advantage.
The influence of factious leaders may kindle a flame within their particular States, but will be unable to spread a general conflagration through the other States. A religious sect may degenerate into a political faction in a part of the Confederacy; but the variety of sects dispersed over the entire face of it must sec
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